Towards the automated operations of large distributed satellite systems. Part 2: Classifications and tools

Recent developments have seen a trend towards larger constellations of spacecraft, with some proposals featuring constellations of more than 10.000 satellites. While similar concepts for large constellations already existed in the past, traditional satellite deployments hardly ever feature groups of more than 100 satellites. This trend towards considerably larger satellite numbers originates from non-traditional design and operations of spacecraft by non-traditional space companies. The evolution in the space sector, precipitated by new players, is often referred to as “Space 4.0” or “New Space”. It necessitates a rethinking of the way satellites and satellite constellations are planned, designed, and operated. New operational paradigms are needed to enable automatic, optimal task definition, and scheduling in a holistic approach.This is the second of two companion papers that investigate the operations of distributed satellite systems. This second article investigates the classification of distributed satellite systems and evaluates commercial tools for automated spacecraft operations, whereas the first article performed a survey of conventional and “new space”operations of spacecraft constellations.Classification metrics for constellations are derived and evaluated with respect to their informative value concerning the operation, the automation, and the scalability of the constellation. The proposed classification system is applied to the Dove and RapidEye constellation and allows for a comparison between the presented automation approaches. Commercial tools for automated spacecraft operations are evaluated for several mission task elements, such as orbit control, orbit maintenance, and collision avoidance. Subsequently, the trends, benefits, and standardization needs for operational automation are identified.     

Large constellations assessment and optimization in LEO space debris environment

Recent plans for large constellations in Low-Earth Orbit have opened the debate on both their vulnerability and their influence on the already hazardous space debris environment. In fact, given that large constellations normally employ satellites of small size, there might be situations in which cm-size debris could have enough energy to cause fragmentation of a significant part of these spacecraft upon impact, while smaller debris could affect the functionalities of critical subsystems, even compromising the success of disposal operations planned at end-of-life. In this context, this paper investigates: (1) collisions with large objects that could initiate the fragmentation of a significant part of the satellite, and (2) impacts with small debris that might perforate the spacecraft hull thus causing relevant performance/functionality degradation. These two points are merged in a simple statistical tool for risk assessment, which analyses the effects of the main parameters of the constellations on its vulnerability (i.e. operational life, number of satellites, spacecraft cross section, satellites reliability). In more details, the tool relates impact probability (for both small and large debris) to the ballistic response of spacecraft structures and protections, defining the critical configurations that might compromise the expected disposal operations. This method requires a limited knowledge of the spacecraft internal layout, as it is based on a statistical analysis of impact damage instead of a complete evaluation of the vulnerability of each subsystem. In parallel, non-debris related failures are also investigated and statistic models of spacecraft reliability characteristic are proposed. Among the results, it is shown that reducing the lifetime of individual satellites in a constellation might improve the success rate of post-mission disposal, thanks to the reduction of the spacecraft exposure to the space environment with the consequential degradation of its performance. On the other hand, reducing the lifetime would seriously affect the debris environment: the increase in traffic in the most crowded altitudes would be not counterbalanced by the higher post mission disposal success rate, causing an overall increase of the total number of uncontrolled resident objects.     

基于TLE的Starlink星座第一阶段部署情况分析

近年来,随着卫星技术的快速发展和低轨（low earth orbit,LEO）卫星宽带互联网建设需求的不断增加,低轨大规模星座发展日新月异。针对Starlink星座初始化部署问题,首先论述了“星链”（Starlink）星座现状,分析在轨卫星高度变化。然后利用公开的两行轨道根数（two-line element,TLE）,从卫星发射入轨、轨道面分布两个方面,简要分析了Starlink星座的部署情况,给出升交点的变化规律;同时仿真分析了Starlink星座对地面的覆盖性能。最后,给出星座轨道面和相位分布、故障卫星处置以及可见卫星数量。所分析的结果以期为中国未来部署大规模LEO星座的建设提供借鉴。     

一种双基站低轨道区域覆盖δ星座设计

在双基站理论研究基础上 ,进行了定倾角区域性覆盖双基站δ星座设计 ,采用倾角为 41°的回归轨道 ,用点覆盖数值仿真的方法设计了对地面站与空间站的一重覆盖与二重覆盖下的星座构型。且星座中各星之间 ,各星与空间站之间均可建立星际链路 ,保证数据在空间站、地面站及星座之间连续传递     

Assessment of the close approach frequency and collision probability for satellites in different configurations of large constellations

The Earth orbital environment is drastically changing due to an intensification of the space activities. In particular, several projects of large constellations, proposed for the next years for communications purpose like global internet access, Internet of Things, or for Earth observations, will lead to the deployment of several thousands of new satellites at an unprecedented rate. It is a crucial challenge for space traffic management, which will deal with a great number of satellite conjunctions, potentially causing a collision with damaging consequences for the constellation itself and the space environment sustainability.In this paper, we investigate the close approach frequency and the cumulative collision probability for each referenced constellation. For this purpose, we compute the orbital evolution of satellites in different constellations during the lifecycle, from the deployment to the decommissioning, and we apply the CUBE algorithm and the Foster method to assess the collision probability with the background space debris population assuming a constant uncertainty in position. We show the variation of risk defined by the close approach frequency and the cumulative collision probability as a function of the proposed configuration. In particular, satellites of the Iridium and Kuiper constellation, but also satellite of the Telesat constellation on polar orbits are the most exposed at a collision. Moreover, the decommissioning phase contribute for a major part to the final cumulative collision probability.     

基于改进MOPSO算法的区域侦察弹性星座重构方法

针对区域侦察弹性星座重构问题，提出了基于改进多目标粒子群优化算法(multi objective particle swarm optimization，MOPSO)的区域侦察弹性星座重构方法。该方法采用一箭多星发射和在轨卫星相位机动相结合的方式对受损星座重构。首先选取了星座覆盖、重构成本、重构时间和星座弹性四方面的指标；其次对一箭多星发射过程和卫星相位机动过程进行了分析，对失效轨道面内剩余正常卫星采取均匀相位的策略。以恢复原有星座性能为目的，考虑最大重访时间、重构成本、重构时间及弹性，建立了重构时间和重构成本最优的重构优化模型。最后对MOPSO算法进行了改进，提出了基于学习机制的种群更新策略，通过变量转化将离散变量转化为连续变量，解决了重构优化模型中混合变量优化问题。针对某一受损星座进行仿真，重构时间最优的重构方案为发射6颗新卫星结合在轨卫星均匀相位；重构成本最优的重构方案为发射4颗新卫星结合在轨卫星均匀相位。案例表明提出的重构方法有效，可为侦察星座的建设提供参考。     

移动通信卫星经济性分析

由小型近地轨道卫星组成星座,实现移动通信服务,是卫星通信发展的重要方向。近地轨道卫星和地球静止轨道卫星用作移动通信卫星网,各有其优缺点。文章从经济性角度对两类卫星网进行了比较,重点是对不同高度的轨道(包括低、中、地球静止)的移动通信系统的空间部分成本——卫星星座的研制成本与发射成本进行分析比较,给出了具体的运算公式和计算结果。其结论是:轨道高度越低,卫星网的成本越高;地球静止轨道卫星网的成本最低。但是,决定是否发展小型近地轨道通信卫星网,不能仅考虑经济因素,还要考虑对技术进步的推动作用。     

大规模卫星星群域管控策略设计

针对大规模卫星星群单节点管控带来的系统通联性差、地面资源依赖度高等问题,提出了分层管理、域内自治、动态维护的卫星星群分布式域管控策略。首先,设计了衡量卫星节点管控能力的静态指数及动态指数,并提出了多因素加权的星群簇首选择方法。其次,提出了通过逐层择优的方式进行域结构初始化的算法流程。最后,根据星群变化情形,提出了基于事件触发的动态时间片域管控方法,保证了大规模星群在全任务周期内能维持相对稳定的管控构型。仿真结果表明,所提出的域管控策略能够有效完成对目标星群的簇首选择、域初始化及动态维护过程,并保持域结构的稳定。实现了目标星群在空间中的域结构划分管理,使地面直接参与管理的卫星节点数目降至原管理模式的14%,有效解决了星群管控严重依赖地面资源的相关问题。     

Novel concept of satellite manoeuvre planning using graph theoretical techniques

Manoeuvrable, responsive satellite constellations that respond to real time events could provide data on demand for time-critical tasks, such as disaster monitoring and relief efforts. The authors demonstrate the feasibility of such a system by expanding on a fully analytical method for designing responsive spacecraft manoeuvres using low thrust propulsion. These manoeuvres are perceived as a graph that enables efficient exploration and optimised selection of favourable routes that achieve mission goals while highlighting resilience and redundancy in the mission’s execution. A case study is presented that considers four satellites required to provide flyovers of two targets, with an associated graph of 10,839 possible manoeuvres. Investigation of the graph highlights that a good, but not minimum time, solution can allow the system to perform well, while also providing greater resilience to changes in mission priorities and errors in execution. This analytical approach enables operators to trade-off between a loss of time by using only one satellite versus the disruption of moving multiple satellites for a potentially faster response. The impact of varying mission capabilities, such as using fewer satellites, smaller swath width or less propellant, can be evaluated by reducing the graph without recalculating manoeuvre options.     

Scheduling algorithms for rapid imaging using agile Cubesat constellations

Distributed Space Missions such as formation flight and constellations, are being recognized as important Earth Observation solutions to increase measurement samples over space and time. Cubesats are increasing in size (27U, ～40?kg in development) with increasing capabilities to host imager payloads. Given the precise attitude control systems emerging in the commercial market, Cubesats now have the ability to slew and capture images within short notice. We propose a modular framework that combines orbital mechanics, attitude control and scheduling optimization to plan the time-varying, full-body orientation of agile Cubesats in a constellation such that they maximize the number of observed images and observation time, within the constraints of Cubesat hardware specifications. The attitude control strategy combines bang-bang and PD control, with constraints such as power consumption, response time, and stability factored into the optimality computations and a possible extension to PID control to account for disturbances. Schedule optimization is performed using dynamic programming with two levels of heuristics, verified and improved upon using mixed integer linear programming. The automated scheduler is expected to run on ground station resources and the resultant schedules uplinked to the satellites for execution, however it can be adapted for onboard scheduling, contingent on Cubesat hardware and software upgrades. The framework is generalizable over small steerable spacecraft, sensor specifications, imaging objectives and regions of interest, and is demonstrated using multiple 20?kg satellites in Low Earth Orbit for two case studies – rapid imaging of Landsat’s land and coastal images and extended imaging of global, warm water coral reefs. The proposed algorithm captures up to 161% more Landsat images than nadir-pointing sensors with the same field of view, on a 2-satellite constellation over a 12-h simulation. Integer programming was able to verify that optimality of the dynamic programming solution for single satellites was within 10%, and find up to 5% more optimal solutions. The optimality gap for constellations was found to be 22% at worst, but the dynamic programming schedules were found at nearly four orders of magnitude better computational speed than integer programming. The algorithm can include cloud cover predictions, ground downlink windows or any other spatial, temporal or angular constraints into the orbital module and be integrated into planning tools for agile constellations.     

多等级区域侦察弹性星座设计方法

针对传统侦察星座目标单一、弹性低的问题，提出了多等级区域侦察弹性星座的设计方法。该方法将星座设计过程按区域等级信息分为多个子星座逐步设计，直到整体星座对所有的区域性能满足设计要求。以区域被划分为3个等级为例，首先对星座设计需求、设计指标及设计步骤进行了分析。其次推导了地面最低分辨率和轨道高度的关系并确定了不同子星座的轨道高度。最后考虑轨道倾角、一箭多星发射、光照和升交点漂移同步约束，构建基础星座、子星座1和子星座2的优化模型。最终设计星座为3层混合星座，共8个轨道面和70颗卫星，星座对各等级区域的最大重访时间分别为10937s，12241s和17437s，弹性指数为2213%，2420%和6361%。结果表明该方法设计的星座可实现对区域覆盖和弹性分级的设计要求，证明了方法的有效性。对比Walker星座设计方法，在同等设计要求下，Walker星座所需卫星数为156颗，多等级区域侦察弹性星座所需卫星数远低于Walker星座，结果进一步证明了该星座设计方法的优越性。     

超精密微牛级微波离子推进技术及其在卫星超精度控制中的应用研究

空间技术的快速发展使得利用空间卫星的编队飞行构建大型空间星座成为可能，在引力波探测、射电望远镜编队、星座组网等任务方面具有重要作用。超精度控制是实现卫星高精度编队飞行的关键技术。推进系统是实现卫星编队长期高度稳定飞行的保证，从而实现内部科学装置的正确运行。不同于常规的推进系统，卫星精密编队超精度控制对推进系统的推力可调范围、分辨率、响应时间、推力的一致性等有着极高的要求。根据卫星精密编队任务需求，对微牛级推进系统的功能及技术要求进行了分析，提出了基于M2微波离子推力器的卫星超精度控制推进系统。阐述了M2超精密微牛级推进系统的关键技术和研究进展，为后续M2推力器在无拖曳控制方面的应用奠定了基础。     

多变量全局寻优与智能优化在星座组网中的应用

顶层任务规划通常与星座组网紧密结合，小卫星分散灵活的特性尤其适用于星群规模化在轨运行。针对热点区域覆盖和全球覆盖的不同任务需求，提出了对构型多变量进行全局寻优和利用智能优化技术进行星座构型优化的方法，两种优化方法可分别获得小规模星群最优效能与超大型星群的较优效能。优化方法不受轨道类型和任务目标分布的约束，具有良好的鲁棒性。     

LEO enhanced Global Navigation Satellite System (LeGNSS) for real-time precise positioning services

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) has been widely used in many geosciences areas with its Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) service. However, GNSS still has its own bottleneck, such as the long initialization period of Precise Point Positioning (PPP) without dense reference network. Recently, the concept of PNTRC (Positioning, Navigation, Timing, Remote sensing and Communication) has been put forward, where Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite constellations are recruited to fulfill diverse missions. In navigation aspect, a number of selected LEO satellites can be equipped with a transmitter to transmit similar navigation signals to ground users, so that they can serve as GNSS satellites but with much faster geometric change to enhance GNSS capability, which is named as LEO constellation enhanced GNSS (LeGNSS). As a result, the initialization time of PPP is expected to be shortened to the level of a few minutes or even seconds depending on the number of the LEO satellites involved. In this article, we simulate all the relevant data from June 8th to 14th, 2014 and investigate the feasibility of LeGNSS with the concentration on the key issues in the whole data processing for providing real-time PPP service based on a system configuration with fourteen satellites of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS), twenty-four satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS), and sixty-six satellites of the Iridium satellite constellations. At the server-end, Precise Orbit Determination (POD) and Precise Clock Estimation (PCE) with various operational modes are investigated using simulated observations. It is found out that GNSS POD with partial LEO satellites is the most practical mode of LeGNSS operation. At the user-end, the Geometry Dilution Of Precision (GDOP) and Signal-In-Space Ranging Error (SISRE) are calculated and assessed for different positioning schemes in order to demonstrate the performance of LeGNSS. Centimeter level SISRE can be achieved for LeGNSS.     

卫星星座述评

<正> 在卫星的各种实际应用中,包括通信、导航、预警、测地、侦察和气象等,都希望在轨道上同时有几颗卫星,组成卫星群或称卫星星座。通常主张用三颗静止轨道卫星组成星座来覆盖地面,但是实际上这种星座只能覆盖低纬度和中纬度区域,不能覆盖高纬度地区,特别是地球两极区域。     

量子科学实验卫星的多维数据立方体方法研究

科学实验卫星以科学目标为任务战略导向，需要任务团队结合实际业务运行情况制定阶段实验计划.这些实验计划以任务运行数据为依据，由科学卫星任务各分系统数据分析获得的策略集合综合得到.量子科学实验卫星在轨运行期间会产生大量运行数据，如何有效利用这些数据给不同决策层提供辅助是当前面临的一大难题.目前主流方式主要借助值班日志统计和常规的数据库系统数据统计，需耗费较多时间和人力成本，对分析人员专业技能要求较高，无法满足多角度和多粒度任务研判的要求，并且该方法可扩展性差，当问题的观察角度变化时，往往需要重新组织数据统计分析.针对上述问题，本文提出一种基于数据立方体的多维数据建模和分析方法，对于不同主题，能够对数据进行多层次、多角度、多粒度统计分析，为决策提供良好支持.      

The impact on tsunami detection from space using GNSS-reflectometry when combining GPS with GLONASS and Galileo

The devastating Sumatra tsunami in 2004 demonstrated the need for a tsunami early warning system in the Indian Ocean. Such a system has been installed within the German-Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System (GITEWS) project. Tsunamis are a global phenomenon and for global observations satellites are predestined. Within the GITEWS project a feasibility study on a future tsunami detection system from space has therefore been carried out. The Global Navigation Satellite System Reflectometry (GNSS-R) is an innovative way of using GNSS signals for remote sensing. It uses ocean reflected GNSS signals for sea surface altimetry. With a dedicated Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation of satellites equipped with GNSS-R receivers, densely spaced sea surface height measurements could be established to detect tsunamis. Some general considerations on the geometry between LEO and GNSS are made in this simulation study. It exemplary analyzes the detection performance of a GNSS-R constellation at 900 km altitude and 60° inclination angle when applied to the Sumatra tsunami as it occurred in 2004. GPS is assumed as signal source and the combination with GLONASS and Galileo signals is investigated. It can be demonstrated, that the combination of GPS and Galileo is advantageous for constellations with few satellites while the combination with GLONASS is preferable for constellations with many satellites. If all three GNSS are combined, the best detection performance can be expected for all scenarios considered. In this case an 18 satellite constellation will detect the Sumatra tsunami within 17 min with certainty, while it takes 53 min if only GPS is considered.     

The future role of relay satellites for orbital telerobotics

Orbital robotics focuses on a variety of applications, as e.g. inspection and repair activities, spacecraft construction or orbit corrections. On-Orbit Servicing (OOS) activities have to be closely monitored by operators on ground. A direct contact to the spacecraft in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is limiting the operational time of the robotic application. Therefore, geostationary satellites are desirable to relay the OOS signals and extend the servicing time window. A geostationary satellite in the communication chain not only introduces additional boundary conditions to the mission but also increases the time delay in the system. The latter is not very critical if the servicer satellite is operating autonomously. However, if the servicer is operating in a supervised control regime with a human in the loop, the increased time delay will have an impact on the operator’s task performance.     

Iridium/ORBCOMM机会信号融合定位技术

在全球导航卫星系统(GNSS)不可用情况下，低地球轨道(LEO)卫星机会信号(SOP)定位技术是一种有效的导航定位解决方案。单LEO星座机会信号定位技术面临星座构型不足或可见卫星偏少等问题，多LEO星座机会信号融合定位技术可有效解决该问题。通过分析瞬时多普勒定位原理，建立了Iridium/ORBCOMM机会信号融合定位模型，引入基于Helmert方差估计的加权最小二乘算法进一步提高定位精度。实测数据表明:基于Helmert方差估计的Iridium/ORBCOMM机会信号融合定位精度优于70 m，验证了多LEO星座机会信号融合定位的可行性和有效性。