基于雷诺数的大气阻力模型在飞行器再入预报中的应用

随着对空间技术服务需求的增加和空间碎片主动移除技术的实现,未来空间碎片将以数量多、质量大、难分解等特点频繁再入大气层,给地面人员和财产安全造成更多威胁.因此,亟需对火箭体等大型航天器的大气再入进行预警,然而因缺乏合适的大气阻力系数模型难以实现高精度的大气再入预报.为此,在简化航天器模型的基础上引入基于雷诺数的大气动力模...     

Re-entry of orbital debris observed by Chung-Li VHF radar with MEDAC

MEDAC (Meteor Echo Detection and Collection) system, a product of University of Colorado, has become part of Chung-Li VHF facilities since July 12, 1989. MEDAC is installed to observe the mesospheric winds from Doppler echos returned by meteor trails in the upper atmosphere. However, the time variations in the in-phase and quadrature components of the signals can be used to derive the time history of the meteor trail formation. The meteor flight speed in the atmosphere is hence deduced. Preliminary analysis of some data taken from July 12 to July 17 of 1989 indicates that there are some “meteor” trails that could have been produced by the reentry of orbital debris into the atmosphere. The criteria of the flight speed and the ionization height are used for selecting an orbital debris trail from pools of “meteor” trails. The relative flux intensities between the reentry orbital debris flux as tentatively identified in this paper and the meteor flux is about 1 to 100.     

Space debris cumulative flux considering the Interval Distance-based method

The availability of engineering models to estimate the risk from space debris is essential for space missions. According to current research, cumulative flux calculation is mostly carried out based on the equal-width interval discretization. The method discretizes the volume around the Earth into cells defined in earth centered inertial coordinates. The resulting debris flux onto a target object is shown to depend on the chosen size of the cells. To avoid a discretization error, this must be accounted for. In order to present reliable flux predictions for space mission, the algorithm improvement is an ongoing topic for the related research field. The aim of this study was to examine the discretization error during the cumulative flux determination process. Both the effect of interval step length and the orbital boundary are under investigation. Several typical orbits are selected as examples here and the 2018/01/03 TLE (Two Line Element) data published by the US Space Surveillance Network is used as the debris background in this paper. Furthermore, the Interval Distance-Based method for Discretization (IDD) is adopted in this paper. A position-centered flux determination method is introduced based on the IDD method. According to the example analysis, the IDD used in the flux calculation process provides results which are less affected by the interval step-size setup; and the orbital boundary has no effect on the calculation process. In other words, the discretization error is significantly reduced. The position-centered method provided a possible suggestion for the improvement of space debris environment models.     

Analysis of the orbit lifetime of CubeSats in low Earth orbits including periodic variation in drag due to attitude motion

It is estimated that more than 22,300 human-made objects are in orbit around the Earth, with a total mass above 8,400,000 kg. Around 89% of these objects are non-operational and without control, which makes them to be considered orbital debris. These numbers consider only objects with dimensions larger than 10 cm. Besides those numbers, there are also about 2000 operational satellites in orbit nowadays. The space debris represents a hazard to operational satellites and to the space operations. A major concern is that this number is growing, due to new launches and particles generated by collisions. Another important point is that the development of CubeSats has increased exponentially in the last years, increasing the number of objects in space, mainly in the Low Earth Orbits (LEO). Due to the short operational time, CubeSats boost the debris population. One of the requirements for space debris mitigation in LEO is the limitation of the orbital lifetime of the satellites, which needs to be lower than 25 years. However, there are space debris with longer estimated decay time. In LEÓs, the influence of the atmospheric drag is the main orbital perturbation, and is used in maneuvers to increment the losses in the satellite orbital energy, to locate satellites in constellations and to accelerate the decay.The goal of the present research is to study the influence of aerodynamic rotational maneuver in the CubeSat?s orbital lifetime. The rotational axis is orthogonal to the orbital plane of the CubeSat, which generates variations in the ballistic coefficient along the trajectory. The maneuver is proposed to accelerate the decay and to mitigate orbital debris generated by non-operational CubeSats. The panel method is selected to determine the drag coefficient as a function of the flow incident angle and the spinning rate. The pressure distribution is integrated from the satellite faces at hypersonic rarefied flow to calculate the drag coefficient. The mathematical model considers the gravitational potential of the Earth and the deceleration due to drag. To analyze the effects of the rotation during the decay, multiple trajectories were propagated, comparing the results obtained assuming a constant drag coefficient with trajectories where the drag coefficient changes periodically. The initial perigees selected were lower than 400 km of altitude with eccentricities ranging from 0.00 to 0.02. Six values for the angular velocity were applied in the maneuver. The technique of rotating the spacecraft is an interesting solution to increase the orbit decay of a CubeSat without implementing additional de-orbit devices. Significant changes in the decay time are presented due to the increase of the mean drag coefficient calculated by the panel method, when the maneuver is applied, reducing the orbital lifetime, however the results are independent of the angular velocity of the satellite.     

基于解体事件的空间碎片轨道演化算法研究

针对航天器解体事件所生成的空间碎片的演化过程,进行了数学分析,确定了新生成的空间碎片的速度增量,在该增量作用下碎片轨道会发生变更,本文根据该增量得出了空间碎片在轨道变更后的轨道根数,分析了在大气阻力摄动作用下,空间碎片的数目和轨道分布的演化情况,给出了相关结果,结果表明此算法可行。     

First spatio-temporal results from the LDEF interplanetary dust experiment

The LDEF Interplanetary Dust Experiment was unique in providing a time history of impacts of micron-sized particles on six orthogonal faces of the vehicle over a span of nearly a full year. Over 15000 hits were recorded, representing a mix of zodiacal dust, meteor stream grains, orbital debris, perhaps beta-meteoroids, and possibly interstellar matter. Although the total number was higher than predicted, the relative panel activity distribution was near expectations. Detailed deconvolution of the impact record with orbital data is underway, to examine each of these populations. Very preliminary results of the fairly crude “first look” analysis suggest that debris is the major particle component at 500 km. The data show clear evidence of some known meteor streams as sharp, tightly-focused events, unlike their visible counterparts. Some apparent debris events show similar signatures. Data from the leading and trailing edges suggest a detection of beta-meteoroids, but the analysis is not yet conclusive. Absolute fluxes and flux ratios are not yet known, since the detector status analysis is yet incomplete.     

Characterizing space debris longitude-dependent distribution based on RAAN perturbation rate

The space debris environment is one of the major threats against payloads. Space debris orbital distribution is of great importance for space debris environment modeling. Due to perturbation factors, the Right Ascension of Ascending Node (RAAN) of space objects changes consistently, causing regular rotation of the orbit plane around Earth’s axis. Based on the investigation of the RAAN perturbation rate of concerned objects, this paper proposes a RAAN discretization method in order to present the space debris longitude-dependent distribution. Combined with two line element (TLE) data provided by the US Space Surveillance Network, the estimated value from RAAN discretization method is compared with the real case. The results suggest that using only the initial orbital data at the beginning of the time interval of interest, the RAAN discretization method is able to provide reliable longitude distribution of concerned targets in the next following period. Furthermore, spacecraft cumulative flux against space debris is calculated in this paper. The results suggest that the relevance between spacecraft RAAN setup and flux output is much smaller for LEO targets than MEO targets, which corresponds with the theory analysis. Since the nonspherical perturbation is the major factor for RAAN variation, the RAAN perturbation rate has little connection with the size of orbital objects. In other words, the RAAN discretization method introduced in this paper also applies to space debris of different size range, proposing a possible suggestion for the improvement of space debris environment engineering models.     

Drag and energy accommodation coefficients during sunspot maximum

Conditions appropriate to gas-surface interactions on satellite surfaces in orbit have not been successfully duplicated in the laboratory. However, measurements by pressure gauges and mass spectrometers in orbit have revealed enough of the basic physical chemistry that realistic theoretical models of the gas-surface interaction can now be used to calculate physical drag coefficients. The dependence of these drag coefficients on conditions in space can be inferred by comparing the physical drag coefficient of a satellite with a drag coefficient fitted to its observed orbital decay. This study takes advantage of recent data on spheres and attitude stabilized satellites to compare physical drag coefficients with the histories of the orbital decay of several satellites during the recent sunspot maximum. The orbital decay was obtained by fitting, in a least squares sense, the semi-major axis decay inferred from the historical two-line elements acquired by the US Space Surveillance Network. All the principal orbital perturbations were included, namely geopotential harmonics up to the 16th degree and order, third body attraction of the Moon and the Sun, direct solar radiation pressure (with eclipses), and aerodynamic drag, using the Jacchia-Bowman 2006 (JB2006) model to describe the atmospheric density. After adjusting for density model bias, a comparison of the fitted drag coefficient with the physical drag coefficient has yielded values for the energy accommodation coefficient as well as for the physical drag coefficient as a function of altitude during solar maximum conditions. The results are consistent with the altitude and solar cycle variation of atomic oxygen, which is known to be adsorbed on satellite surfaces, affecting both the energy accommodation and angular distribution of the reemitted molecules.     

Protecting and manoeuvring of spacecraft in space debris environment

The paper gives an overview on the fields of debris research performed at the TUBS. The orbital debris flux of all objects larger than 1cm has been established and simulated by a mathematical model in the past mainly on the basis of simulating explosion fragments. However the flux in the millimeter and submillimeter size range seems to be largely influenced by collisions and their ejecta on high circular or on eccentric orbits. The angular distribution of the impact flux on targets at various altitudes and on various inclinations are presented. This angular distribution has also influence on the surface impact flux on a space station, where also the self shielding has to be considered. Results for the ISS are presented. The risk of impacts of larger not shieldable objects on a space station may become too high, so that collision avoidance manoeuvres must be envisaged, the feasibility of which using onboard detectors is discussed.     

非相干散射雷达的空间碎片参数统计分析

采用匹配滤波方法处理了非相干散射雷达的原始采样数据(时长约7h), 共检测到394个空间碎片, 估算了其轨道高度、径向速度、散射截面、等效直径及径向加速度等参数, 统计分析了这些参数的变化特征, 得到穿过雷达 波束的空间碎片流量约为60h-1, 信噪比为10～1000, 空间碎片主要分布在600～1100km和1400～1600km两个高度区间, 散射截面 10-5～10-2m2, 等效直径3～10cm, 径向速度-1.5～1.5km·s-1, 径向加速度20～90m·s-2, 这对于中国的空间碎片探测与研究具有重要参考意义.      

Assessment of space debris collisions against spacecraft with deorbit devices

Deorbit methods have been employed to remove space debris from orbit. One of these methods is to utilize atmospheric drag. In this method, a membrane loaded into the spacecraft is expanded to increase atmospheric drag. Although this method works without requiring fuel, it has the disadvantage of a high risk of collision with other debris owing to its larger area. Area-time product and energy-to-mass ratio have been used as indices to evaluate the risk of collisions between spacecraft and debris. However, the evaluation criteria were uncertain because these two indices are independent. In this paper, we propose a new evaluation index, single-sheet collision factor (SSCF), that comprehensively evaluates the collision risk based on experiments simulating debris collisions. As a result of the hypervelocity collision experiment, we found that the penetration-area mass of the spacecraft affects the severity of debris collisions. In this paper, the product of the exterior-wall thickness, the exterior-wall density, and the space debris cross-sectional area defines the penetration-area mass of the spacecraft. Furthermore, we compare and evaluate various deorbit methods using SSCF. The comparison showed that the penetration-area mass of the SSCF could be quantitatively determined for the debris-collision severity due to difference in structural materials of spacecraft. SSCF will be used to create rules for space-environment conservation with the expansion of the space-development market.     

A Partially Orthogonal EnKF approach to atmospheric density estimation using orbital debris

A key requirement for accurate trajectory prediction and space situational awareness is knowledge of how non-conservative forces affect space object motion. These forces vary temporally and spatially, and are driven by the underlying behavior of space weather particularly in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Existing trajectory prediction algorithms adjust space weather models based on calibration satellite observations. However, lack of sufficient data and mismodeling of non-conservative forces cause inaccuracies in space object motion prediction, especially for uncontrolled debris objects. The uncontrolled nature of debris objects makes them particularly sensitive to the variations in space weather. Our research takes advantage of this behavior by utilizing observations of debris objects to infer the space environment parameters influencing their motion.The hypothesis of this research is that it is possible to utilize debris objects as passive, indirect sensors of the space environment. We focus on estimating atmospheric density and its spatial variability to allow for more precise prediction of LEO object motion. The estimated density is parameterized as a grid of values, distributed by latitude and local sidereal time over a spherical shell encompassing Earth at a fixed altitude of 400 km. The position and velocity of each debris object are also estimated. A Partially Orthogonal Ensemble Kalman Filter (POEnKF) is used for assimilation of space object measurements to estimate density.For performance comparison, the scenario characteristics (number of objects, measurement cadence, etc.) are based on a sensor tasking campaign executed for the High Accuracy Satellite Drag Model project. The POEnKF analysis details spatial comparisons between the true and estimated density fields, and quantifies the improved accuracy in debris object motion predictions due to more accurate drag force models from density estimates. It is shown that there is an advantage to utilizing multiple debris objects instead of just one object. Although the work presented here explores the POEnKF performance when using information from only 16 debris objects, the research vision is to utilize information from all routinely observed debris objects. Overall, the filter demonstrates the ability to estimate density to within a threshold of accuracy dependent on measurement/sensor error. In the case of a geomagnetic storm, the filter is able to track the storm and provide more accurate density estimates than would be achieved using a simple exponential atmospheric density model or MSIS Atmospheric Model (when calm conditions are assumed).     

Taurid complex meteoroids detected near aphelion with Ulysses

Between 3.4 and 4.0 AU the dust detection system aboard the Ulysses spacecraft showed an increase in detection rate for particles with masses greater than 5 × 10⁻¹³ g. The spacecraft meteoroid encounter geometry indicates highly eccentric orbits detected near aphelion. The outer limit of the enhanced flux is imposed as meteoroids on such orbits move outside the aperture of the dust detector. The inner edge of the enhanced flux would be consistent with the aphelion distance acquired by 50-200 μm particles evolving for 10-20 kyr under Poynting-Robertson drag from an Encke type orbit. We propose such meteoroids provide a source population from which collisional fragmentation produces particles in the mass range to which the Ulysses detector is sensitive. Daughter fragments produced away from the aphelia of the parent orbits, a 2.2 AU, e 0.85, enter hyperbolic orbits which are not evident in the Ulysses data. The spatial density of fragments from collisions very near aphelion drops off rapidly as they evolve inward under Poynting-Robertson drag while collisions closer to 3.4 AU leave the subsequent peak density outside that radius for a significant fraction of the fragment's subsequent lifetime. The rapid orbital evolution for these collision fragments implies a recent breakup and probably a large reservoir of parent meteoroids.     

Debris flux comparisons from the Goldstone Radar,Haystack Radar,and Hax Radar prior,during, and after the last solar maximum

The continual monitoring of the low Earth orbit (LEO) debris environment using highly sensitive radars is essential for an accurate characterization of these dynamic populations. Debris populations are continually evolving since there are new debris sources, previously unrecognized debris sources, and debris loss mechanisms that are dependent on the dynamic space environment. Such radar data are used to supplement, update, and validate existing orbital debris models. NASA has been utilizing radar observations of the debris environment for over a decade from three complementary radars: the NASA JPL Goldstone radar, the MIT Lincoln Laboratory (MIT/LL) Long Range Imaging Radar (known as the Haystack radar), and the MIT/LL Haystack Auxiliary radar (HAX). All of these systems are highly sensitive radars that operate in a fixed staring mode to statistically sample orbital debris in the LEO environment. Each of these radars is ideally suited to measure debris within a specific size region. The Goldstone radar generally observes objects with sizes from 2 mm to 1 cm. The Haystack radar generally measures from 5 mm to several meters. The HAX radar generally measures from 2 cm to several meters. These overlapping size regions allow a continuous measurement of cumulative debris flux versus diameter from 2 mm to several meters for a given altitude window. This is demonstrated for all three radars by comparing the debris flux versus diameter over 200 km altitude windows for 3 nonconsecutive years from 1998 to 2003. These years correspond to periods before, during, and after the peak of the last solar cycle. Comparing the year to year flux from Haystack for each of these altitude regions indicate statistically significant changes in subsets of the debris populations. Potential causes of these changes are discussed. These analysis results include error bars that represent statistical sampling errors.     

Determination of basic constants of satellite-atmosphere interaction from the analysis of motion of 1974-70A

The atmospheric drag and lift effects are studied on the orbital data of the satellite 1974-70A. The values of the thermal accomodation coefficient and of the drag coefficient are determined.     

Measuring atmospheric density using GPS–LEO tracking data

We present a method to estimate the total neutral atmospheric density from precise orbit determination of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. We derive the total atmospheric density by determining the drag force acting on the LEOs through centimeter-level reduced-dynamic precise orbit determination (POD) using onboard Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking data. The precision of the estimated drag accelerations is assessed using various metrics, including differences between estimated along-track accelerations from consecutive 30-h POD solutions which overlap by 6 h, comparison of the resulting accelerations with accelerometer measurements, and comparison against an existing atmospheric density model, DTM-2000. We apply the method to GPS tracking data from CHAMP, GRACE, SAC-C, Jason-2, TerraSAR-X and COSMIC satellites, spanning 12 years (2001–2012) and covering orbital heights from 400 km to 1300 km. Errors in the estimates, including those introduced by deficiencies in other modeled forces (such as solar radiation pressure and Earth radiation pressure), are evaluated and the signal and noise levels for each satellite are analyzed. The estimated density data from CHAMP, GRACE, SAC-C and TerraSAR-X are identified as having high signal and low noise levels. These data all have high correlations with anominal atmospheric density model and show common features in relative residuals with respect to the nominal model in related parameter space. On the contrary, the estimated density data from COSMIC and Jason-2 show errors larger than the actual signal at corresponding altitudes thus having little practical value for this study. The results demonstrate that this method is applicable to data from a variety of missions and can provide useful total neutral density measurements for atmospheric study up to altitude as high as 715 km, with precision and resolution between those derived from traditional special orbital perturbation analysis and those obtained from onboard accelerometers.     

A deorbiter CubeSat for active orbital debris removal

This paper introduces a mission concept for active removal of orbital debris based on the utilization of the CubeSat form factor. The CubeSat is deployed from a carrier spacecraft, known as a mothership, and is equipped with orbital and attitude control actuators to attach to the target debris, stabilize its attitude, and subsequently move the debris to a lower orbit where atmospheric drag is high enough for the bodies to burn up. The mass and orbit altitude of debris objects that are within the realms of the CubeSat’s propulsion capabilities are identified. The attitude control schemes for the detumbling and deorbiting phases of the mission are specified. The objective of the deorbiting maneuver is to decrease the semi-major axis of the debris orbit, at the fastest rate, from its initial value to a final value of about 6471?km (i.e., 100?km above Earth considering a circular orbit) via a continuous low-thrust orbital transfer. Two case studies are investigated to verify the performance of the deorbiter CubeSat during the detumbling and deorbiting phases of the mission. The baseline target debris used in the study are the decommissioned KOMPSAT-1 satellite and the Pegasus rocket body. The results show that the deorbiting times for the target debris are reduced significantly, from several decades to one or two years.     

利用TLE数据分析LEO卫星轨道异常的新方法——————综合判据法

及时准确地发现在轨卫星的轨道异常意义重大. 通过有效的异常算法, 能够找出发生轨道异常的碎片或航天器, 为空间碎片碰撞预警系统分析和验证碰撞事件提供数据支持. 通过对利用TLE (Two Line Elements)数据分析LEO在轨卫星轨道异常的方法研究, 提出了一个利用单个卫星相邻根数时间差控制加综合判据的判别方法. 分析表明, 相对于取单一因素阈值的判别方法, 综合判据法能够最大限度地减少漏判, 并且保持相对较高的判断准确率.      

Deorbiter CubeSat mission design

This paper presents the mission design for a CubeSat-based active debris removal approach intended for transferring sizable debris objects from low-Earth orbit to a deorbit altitude of 100 km. The mission consists of a mothership spacecraft that carries and deploys several debris-removing nanosatellites, called Deorbiter CubeSats. Each Deorbiter is designed based on the utilization of an eight-unit CubeSat form factor and commercially-available components with significant flight heritage. The mothership spacecraft delivers Deorbiter CubeSats to the vicinity of a predetermined target debris, through performing a long-range rendezvous maneuver. Through a formation flying maneuver, the mothership then performs in-situ measurements of debris shape and orbital state. Upon release from the mothership, each Deorbiter CubeSat proceeds to performing a rendezvous and attachment maneuver with a debris object. Once attached to the debris, the CubeSat performs a detumbling maneuver, by which the residual angular momentum of the CubeSat-debris system is dumped using Deorbiter’s onboard reaction wheels. After stabilizing the attitude motion of the combined Deorbiter-debris system, the CubeSat proceeds to performing a deorbiting maneuver, i.e., reducing system’s altitude so much so that the bodies disintegrate and burn up due to atmospheric drag, typically at around 100 km above the Earth surface. The attitude and orbital maneuvers that are planned for the mission are described, both for the mothership and Deorbiter CubeSat. The performance of each spacecraft during their operations is investigated, using the actual performance specifications of the onboard components. The viability of the proposed debris removal approach is discussed in light of the results.