Effects of simulated space radiation on immunoassay components for life-detection experiments in planetary exploration missions

Abstract The Life Marker Chip (LMC) instrument is part of the proposed payload on the ESA ExoMars rover that is scheduled for launch in 2018. The LMC will use antibody-based assays to detect molecular signatures of life in samples obtained from the shallow subsurface of Mars. For the LMC antibodies, the ability to resist inactivation due to space particle radiation (both in transit and on the surface of Mars) will therefore be a prerequisite. The proton and neutron components of the mission radiation environment are those that are expected to have the dominant effect on the operation of the LMC. Modeling of the radiation environment for a mission to Mars led to the calculation of nominal mission fluences for proton and neutron radiation. Various combinations and multiples of these values were used to demonstrate the effects of radiation on antibody activity, primarily at the radiation levels envisaged for the ExoMars mission as well as at much higher levels. Five antibodies were freeze-dried in a variety of protective molecular matrices and were exposed to various radiation conditions generated at a cyclotron facility. After exposure, the antibodies' ability to bind to their respective antigens was assessed and found to be unaffected by ExoMars mission level radiation doses. These experiments indicated that the expected radiation environment of a Mars mission does not pose a significant risk to antibodies packaged in the form anticipated for the LMC instrument. Key Words: Life-detection instruments-Planetary habitability and biosignatures-Radiation-Mars-Life in extreme environments. Astrobiology 12, 718-729.     

Utilisation of the European Retrieval Carrier Eureca for life science research.

Eureca, the European Retrieval Carrier, is a reusable free-flying platform, which will be launched to 500 km altitude and retrieved by the Shuttle. up to 6 months later at 300 km. The first mission of Eureca is dedicated to research in the fields of life sciences and material sciences. The experimental hardware of the first mission will consist of a variety of processing chambers for crystal growth and equipment for biological investigations viz plant growth and protein crystallization, and there is the possibility to perform experiments in the field of exobiology. The Eureca mission offers the opportunity for long time exposure of material and of terrestrial origin to the unique environment of space or to selected factors of it, such as the radiation environment, the space vacuum, extreme temperatures and microgravity conditions.     

模拟载人探月中航天员空间辐射风险评估

空间辐射是长期载人航天飞行任务中影响航天员健康的重要风险因素。为了探求载人探月过程中对空间辐射的合理防护方式,文章借助空间辐射场模型对"嫦娥三号"飞行任务在不同质量厚度材料屏蔽下的舱内空间辐射环境进行了仿真计算,并确定了航天员各器官接受的空间辐射剂量、剂量当量以及有效剂量等辐射防护量以进行辐射风险评估。结果表明,随着屏蔽厚度的增加,航天员的各组织或器官的吸收剂量和剂量当量以及有效剂量均明显降低;采用质量屏蔽的方法对低于100 Me V的质子具有很好的防护效果,但对高能质子或重离子的防护效果不明显。计算和分析显示,载人探月过程中,只要采取适当的防护措施,航天员的空间辐射风险是可控的。     

Long-term biological investigations in space

Missions in space within the next two decades will be of longer duration than those carried out up to the present time, and the effects of such long-term flights on biological organisms are unknown. Results of biological experiments that have been performed to date cannot be extrapolated to results in future flights because of the unknown influence of adaptation over a long period of time. Prior experiments with Axolotl, fishes, and vertebrates by our research team (in part with sounding rockets) showed that these specimens did not appear to be suitable for long-term missions on which minimization of expense, technique, and energy is required. Subsequent investigations have shown the suitability of the leech (Hirudo medicinalis), which consumes blood of mammals up to ten times its own weight (1 g) and can live more than 2 years without further food supply. Emphasis in the experiments with Hirudo medicinalis is placed on metabolic rhythm and motility. Resorption and diffusion in tissue, development, and growth under long-term effects of cosmic proton radiation and zero-gravity are other focal points. The constancy of cellular life in the mature animals is a point in favor of these specimens. We have also taken into account the synergistic effects of the space environment on the problems just mentioned. The life-support system constructed for the leech has been tested successfully in four sounding rocket flights and, on that basis, has been prepared for a long-term mission. Long-term investigations out of the terrestrial biosphere will provide us with information concerning the degree of adaptation of certain physiological and biochemical functions and as to what extent biological readjustment or repair processes can occur under the specific stress conditions of space flight.     

Radiation: risk and protection in manned space flight.

Space radiation is the primary source of hazard for orbital and interplanetary space flight. Radiation levels for different space mission durations, have been established in order to determine the level of hazard. The risk of exceeding the established levels should not be more than 1%. Radiation environment models have been developed to estimate these values. It is possible to build spacecraft shielding based on the calculation of doses and the risk of exceeding these. By reviewing various calculated estimates of the risk, the radiation hazard and the efficiency of protective measures can be established for specific flights.     

Crew autonomy for deep space exploration: Lessons from the Antarctic Search for Meteorites

Future piloted missions to explore asteroids, Mars, and other targets beyond the Moon will experience strict limitations on communication between vehicles in space and control centers on Earth. These limitations will require crews to operate with greater autonomy than any past space mission has demonstrated. The Antarctic Search for Meteorites (ANSMET) project, which regularly sends small teams of researchers to remote parts of the southern continent, resembles a space mission in many ways but does not rely upon a control center. It provides a useful crew autonomy model for planners of future deep space exploration missions. In contrast to current space missions, ANSMET gives the crew the authority to adjust competing work priorities, task assignments, and daily schedules; allows the crew to be the primary monitor of mission progress; demands greater crew accountability for operational errors; requires the crew to make the most of limited communication bandwidth; adopts systems designed for simple operation and failure recovery; and grants the crew a leading role in the selection and stowage of their equipment.     

Overview of the Neurolab Spacelab mission

Neurolab is a NASA Spacelab mission with multinational cooperative participation that is dedicated to research on the nervous system. The nervous systems of all animal species have evolved in a one-g environment and are functionally influenced by the presence of gravity. The absence of gravity presents a unique opportunity to gain new insights into basic neurologic functions as well as an enhanced understanding of physiological and behavioral responses mediated by the nervous system. The primary goal of Neurolab is to expand our understanding of how the nervous system develops, functions in, and adapts to microgravity space flight. Twenty-six peer reviewed investigations using human and nonhuman test subjects were assigned to one of eight science discipline teams. Individual and integrated experiments within these teams have been designed to collect a wide range of physiological and behavior data in flight as well as pre- and postflight. Information from these investigations will be applicable to enhancing the well being and performance of future long duration space travelers, will contribute to our understanding of normal and pathological functioning of the nervous system, and may be applied by the medical community to enhance the health of humans on Earth.     

Probabilistic assessment of radiation risk for astronauts in space missions

Accurate estimations of the health risks to astronauts due to space radiation exposure are necessary for future lunar and Mars missions. Space radiation consists of solar particle events (SPEs), comprised largely of medium energy protons (less than several hundred MeV); and galactic cosmic rays (GCR), which include high-energy protons and heavy ions. While the frequency distribution of SPEs depends strongly upon the phase within the solar activity cycle, the individual SPE occurrences themselves are random in nature. A solar modulation model has been developed for the temporal characterization of the GCR environment, which is represented by the deceleration potential, ?. The risk of radiation exposure to astronauts as well as to hardware from SPEs during extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) or in lightly shielded vehicles is a major concern for radiation protection. To support the probabilistic risk assessment for EVAs, which could be up to 15% of crew time² on lunar missions, we estimated the probability of SPE occurrence as a function of solar cycle phase using a non-homogeneous Poisson model [1] to fit the historical database of measurements of protons with energy>30 MeV, Φ₃₀. The resultant organ doses and dose equivalents, as well as effective whole body doses, for acute and cancer risk estimations are analyzed for a conceptual habitat module and for a lunar rover during space missions of defined durations. This probabilistic approach to radiation risk assessment from SPE and GCR is in support of mission design and operational planning for future manned space exploration missions.     

Preliminary assessment of a small robotic rover for Titan exploration

Titan is a very interesting target in deep space exploration. With its solid surface on which a rover can easily travel and its methane lakes which can be sailed it is the ideal target for a deep space mission which includes a mobile platform. In the present paper the general layout of a rover for a mission to Titan is studied, dealing with the mobility, power generation and trajectory control issues. A four-wheels configuration with slip steering was chosen; to compare this solution with the more conventional strategy based on steering wheels, simulations were performed on some trajectories computed through the well known ‘potential’ method, using both slip steering and conventional steering control, for different vehicle speeds. The comparison between the simulated trajectories allows to state the adequateness of the proposed approach.The results here obtained apply not only to a future mission to Titan, but also to other missions designed for the exploration of the satellites of the outer planets having a size comparable with that of Titan and the largest Kuiper belt objects like Pluto and 136472 Makemake.     

天地往返可重复使用运载器再入飞行GNC系统关键技术

天地往返可重复使用运载器(RLV)在未来天战中将扮演重要角色。目前各军事大国围绕RLV的关键技术开展了广泛深入的研究。再入飞行是RLV飞行任务的重要阶段,而制导、导航与控制(GNC)系统则是RLV的核心系统之一,是RLV再入飞行的“脑系统”。本文分析了RLV在再入飞行阶段GNC系统的任务要求,明确其体系结构,分析GNC系统存在的问题,给出了深入研究GNC系统需要解决的关键技术和进一步研究的方向。     

Radiation protective structures on the base of a case study for a manned Mars mission

Plans for interplanetary manned space missions imply significant risks arising from human's exposure to the hostile space environment. Thus the design of reliable protection systems against the ionizing cosmic radiation becomes one of the most relevant issues. In this paper the composition and magnitude of the atmospheric radiation on the planetary surface and for typical interplanetary transfer configurations have been analyzed. The investigation based on prior NASA and ESA mission results, using a manned mission to planet Mars as a case study. According to this, the time-dependent character of the consistency of cosmic radiation has been taken into account, which is justified by the interdependence of the radiation magnitude to the solar cycle. With regard to this paper it implies even solar particle events. The results have been compared to the protective character of different materials potentially usable as a habitat's structural shell and for interplanetary spacecrafts. The investigation aimed on particle energy degradation rates and reduction of secondary particle production. In this regard the physical process of absorbing effectiveness against particle radiation has been examined by analytical calculation and given scientific results, depending on thickness and molecular composition of the materials. The most suitable materials have been used for shield design proposals using different configurations, evaluating the use of aluminium, water tanks and polyethylene bricks.     

Human missions to Mars: new psychological challenges and research issues

Human exploratory missions to Mars represent the most exciting future vision of human space flight. With respect to the distance to travel and mission duration, these missions will provide unique psychological challenges that do not compare to any other endeavor humans ever have attempted. The present paper presents outcomes of two recent projects sponsored by the European Space Agency--Humex and Reglisse--where these challenges and risks have been analyzed in some detail, and where concepts for future research have been developed. This presentation involves three steps. At first, it will be shown that our current psychological knowledge derived from orbital spaceflight and analogue environments is not sufficient to assess the specific risks of mission into outer space. Secondly, new psychological challenges of missions to Mars will be identified with respect to three different areas: (1) individual adaptation and performance, (2) crew interactions, and (3) concept and methods of psychological countermeasures. Finally, different options and issues of preparatory psychological research will be discussed.     

光电技术在中国深空探测中的应用

文章简单回顾了中国深空探测已走过的历程和正在进行的项目,展望了今后的发展;分析了深空探测器及其有效栽荷对光电技术的需求;重点对中国已发射的月球探测器"嫦娥一号"、"嫦娥二号"中应用的光电技术和获取的成果,正在研制的"嫦娥三号"探测器中所应用的光电技术,月球探测三期和今后可能发展的深空探测项目中预计采用的光电技术的研制工...     

核热推进载人火星探测方案设计

针对载人火星探测任务，结合我国现有技术基础，提出我国载人火星探测方案，重点研究载人火星探测任务推进系统的设计。首先，综合考虑载人深空探测任务的约束，采用Pork-Chop图设计了适用于不同任务场景的转移轨迹；然后，参考我国空间站技术，基于核热推进系统设计了我国载人火星探测任务的飞船；最后，对核热推进系统的发动机台数和推力进行了优化，得到了适用于不同任务场景的最优推进系统组合方案。本文所研究内容为我国未来载人火星探测任务提供了有益参考。     

Success criteria and risk management for the new millennium program

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) New Millennium Program (NMP) is a technology development and validation program that will flight-validate advanced, new technologies with space flight applications. NMP's purpose is twofold. First, it will develop technologies that will enable future spacecraft to be smaller, more capable and reliable, and to be launched more frequently. Second, it will validate the technologies in flight to reduce the risks to future science missions that fly these technologies for the first time. To measure the program's success, NMP has devised a set of criteria that stresses the relevance of technologies selected for flight validation to NASA's 21st-century science mission needs. Also, NMP has instituted a ‘risk management’ policy, where, through a combination of adequate resources and early risk assessment and risk mitigation plans for the technologies, the overall risk of the NMP flights can be rendered acceptable.     

月球卫星轨道摄动及冻结轨道研究

利用理论分析、数值仿真与相图分析,论述了月球卫星冻结轨道与地球卫星冻结轨道的区别,分析结果表明,月球重力场存在较大异常,会引起月球卫星轨道发生较大漂移。月球冻结轨道在田谐项影响下,还存在中等周期的漂移。仅简单考虑带谐项系数,无法求得完美的月球冻结系数。月球重力场异常对绕月卫星的影响与地球相比存在很大区别。月球轨道卫星的长期运行与控制策略的设计,不能按照地球轨道卫星的传统方法。目前使用的月球引力模型精度较差,尽管基于这些不可靠的引力模型,可以得出很多有用结论,但对未来高精度的月球探测任务来说,还存在不足,需要在将来的月球探测任务中,探测高精度的月球重力场,以利于未来月球探测航天系统的任务分析与设计。     

嫦娥五号探测器供配电系统设计与验证

结合嫦娥五号探测器主要任务特点,简要介绍了多器供配电系统的功能需求、多器联合供电方案设计,并通过能量平衡仿真分析、多母线融合控制等关键技术,解决了嫦娥五号探测器在复杂空间环境下多任务、多模式的高可靠轻小型化供配电系统设计难题。在轨飞行试验结果表明:供配电系统功能正常、工作可靠、性能优良。提出的嫦娥五号探测器多器组合一体化供配电系统分析与设计方法,满足并确保了月面无人自动采样返回任务可靠实现,可为未来探月工程及其它深空探测领域供配电系统设计提供参考和借鉴。     

Introduction to Japanese exploration study to the moon

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) views the lunar lander SELENE-2 as the successor to the SELENE mission. In this presentation, the mission objectives of SELENE-2 are shown together with the present design status of the spacecraft. JAXA launched the Kaguya (SELENE) lunar orbiter in September 2007, and the spacecraft observed the Moon and a couple of small satellites using 15 instruments. As the next step in lunar exploration, the lunar lander SELENE-2 is being considered. SELENE-2 will land on the lunar surface and perform in-situ scientific observations, environmental investigations, and research for future lunar utilization including human activity. At the same time, it will demonstrate key technologies for lunar and planetary exploration such as precise and safe landing, surface mobility, and overnight survival. The lander will carry laser altimeters, image sensors, and landing radars for precise and safe landing. Landing legs and a precisely controlled propulsion system will also be developed. A rover is being designed to be able to travel over a wide area and observe featured terrain using scientific instruments. Since some of the instruments require long-term observation on the lunar surface, technology for night survival over more than 2 weeks needs to be considered. The SELENE-2 technologies are expected to be one of the stepping stones towards future Japanese human activities on the moon and to expand the possibilities for deep space science.     

一种基于切换控制律的机器人双边遥操作方法

针对变时延下多自由度机器人在任务空间的遥操作问题,为在保证时延稳定性的同时提高其透明性和跟踪性,在一种比例微分+阻尼的任务空间双边控制器基础上,加入变增益切换控制律。结合性能需求,为不同操作模式设计合适的控制增益。在切换律中引入临界模态,保证系统在碰撞发生时切换控制的稳定性。利用李雅普诺夫理论证明系统在各模态下以及切换过程中的稳定性。通过对一个典型任务的仿真,校验该方法的有效性;同时,几组对比仿真试验也展示了该方法在稳定性和操作性上的优势。