共查询到20条相似文献,搜索用时 22 毫秒
1.
In this paper we review the possible radiation mechanisms for the observed non-thermal emission in clusters of galaxies, with
a primary focus on the radio and hard X-ray emission. We show that the difficulty with the non-thermal, non-relativistic Bremsstrahlung
model for the hard X-ray emission, first pointed out by Petrosian (Astrophys. J. 557, 560, 2001) using a cold target approximation, is somewhat alleviated when one treats the problem more exactly by including the fact
that the background plasma particle energies are on average a factor of 10 below the energy of the non-thermal particles.
This increases the lifetime of the non-thermal particles, and as a result decreases the extreme energy requirement, but at
most by a factor of three. We then review the synchrotron and so-called inverse Compton emission by relativistic electrons,
which when compared with observations can constrain the value of the magnetic field and energy of relativistic electrons.
This model requires a low value of the magnetic field which is far from the equipartition value. We briefly review the possibilities
of gamma-ray emission and prospects for GLAST observations. We also present a toy model of the non-thermal electron spectra that are produced by the acceleration mechanisms
discussed in an accompanying paper Petrosian and Bykov (Space Sci. Rev., 2008, this issue, Chap. 11). 相似文献
2.
Following on from IRAS, ISO has provided a huge advancement in our knowledge of the phenomenology of the infrared (IR) emission
of normal galaxies and the underlying physical processes. Highlights include the discovery of an extended cold dust emission
component, present in all types of gas-rich galaxies and carrying the bulk of the dust luminosity; the definitive characterisation
of the spectral energy distribution in the IR, revealing the channels through which stars power the IR light; the derivation
of realistic geometries for stars and dust from ISO imaging; the discovery of cold dust associated with H I extending beyond the optical body of galaxies; the remarkable similarity of the near-IR (NIR)/mid-IR (MIR) SEDs for spiral
galaxies, revealing the importance of the photo-dissociation regions in the energy budget for that wavelength range; the importance
of the emission from the central regions in shaping up the intensity and the colour of the global MIR luminosity; the discovery
of the “hot” NIR continuum emission component of interstellar dust; the predominance of the diffuse cold neutral medium as
the origin for the main interstellar cooling line, [C II] 158 μm, in normal galaxies.
Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries:
France, Germany, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom), and with the participation of ISAS and NASA. 相似文献
3.
Aprajita Verma Vassilis Charmandaris Ulrich Klaas Dieter Lutz Martin Haas 《Space Science Reviews》2005,119(1-4):355-407
Some of the most ‘active’ galaxies in the Universe are obscured by large quantities of dust and emit a substantial fraction
of their bolometric luminosity in the infrared. Observations of these infrared luminous galaxies with the Infrared Space Observatory
(ISO) have provided a relatively unabsorbed view to the sources fuelling this active emission. The improved sensitivity, spatial
resolution and spectroscopic capability of ISO over its predecessor Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) of enabled significant
advances in the understanding of the infrared properties of active galaxies. ISO surveyed a wide range of active galaxies
which, in the context of this review, includes those powered by intense bursts of star formation as well as those containing
a dominant active galactic nucleus (AGN). Mid-infrared imaging resolved for the first time the dust enshrouded nuclei in many
nearby galaxies, while a new era in infrared spectroscopy was opened by probing a wealth of atomic, ionic and molecular lines
as well as broad band features in the mid- and far-infrared. This was particularly useful, since it resulted in the understanding
of the power production, excitation and fuelling mechanisms in the nuclei of active galaxies including the intriguing but
so far elusive ultraluminous infrared galaxies. Detailed studies of various classes of AGN and quasars greatly improved our
understanding of the unification scenario. Far-infrared imaging and photometry revealed the presence of a new very cold dust
component in galaxies and furthered our knowledge of the far-infrared properties of faint starbursts, ULIGs and quasars. We
summarise almost nine years of key results based on ISO data spanning the full range of luminosity and type of active galaxies. 相似文献
4.
The James Webb Space Telescope 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
Jonathan P. Gardner John C. Mather Mark Clampin Rene Doyon Matthew A. Greenhouse Heidi B. Hammel John B. Hutchings Peter Jakobsen Simon J. Lilly Knox S. Long Jonathan I. Lunine Mark J. Mccaughrean Matt Mountain John Nella George H. Rieke Marcia J. Rieke Hans-Walter Rix Eric P. Smith George Sonneborn Massimo Stiavelli H. S. Stockman Rogier A. Windhorst Gillian S. Wright 《Space Science Reviews》2006,123(4):485-606
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a large (6.6 m), cold (<50 K), infrared (IR)-optimized space observatory that will be launched early in the next decade into orbit around the second Earth–Sun Lagrange point. The observatory will have four instruments: a near-IR camera, a near-IR multiobject spectrograph, and a tunable filter imager will cover the wavelength range, 0.6 < ; < 5.0 μ m, while the mid-IR instrument will do both imaging and spectroscopy from 5.0 < ; < 29 μ m.The JWST science goals are divided into four themes. The key objective of The End of the Dark Ages: First Light and Reionization theme is to identify the first luminous sources to form and to determine the ionization history of the early universe. The key objective of The Assembly of Galaxies theme is to determine how galaxies and the dark matter, gas, stars, metals, morphological structures, and active nuclei within them evolved from the epoch of reionization to the present day. The key objective of The Birth of Stars and Protoplanetary Systems theme is to unravel the birth and early evolution of stars, from infall on to dust-enshrouded protostars to the genesis of planetary systems. The key objective of the Planetary Systems and the Origins of Life theme is to determine the physical and chemical properties of planetary systems including our own, and investigate the potential for the origins of life in those systems. Within these themes and objectives, we have derived representative astronomical observations.To enable these observations, JWST consists of a telescope, an instrument package, a spacecraft, and a sunshield. The telescope consists of 18 beryllium segments, some of which are deployed. The segments will be brought into optical alignment on-orbit through a process of periodic wavefront sensing and control. The instrument package contains the four science instruments and a fine guidance sensor. The spacecraft provides pointing, orbit maintenance, and communications. The sunshield provides passive thermal control. The JWST operations plan is based on that used for previous space observatories, and the majority of JWST observing time will be allocated to the international astronomical community through annual peer-reviewed proposal opportunities. 相似文献
5.
In this paper we review the possible mechanisms for production of non-thermal electrons which are responsible for the observed
non-thermal radiation in clusters of galaxies. Our primary focus is on non-thermal Bremsstrahlung and inverse Compton scattering,
that produce hard X-ray emission. We first give a brief review of acceleration mechanisms and point out that in most astrophysical
situations, and in particular for the intracluster medium, shocks, turbulence and plasma waves play a crucial role. We also
outline how the effects of the turbulence can be accounted for. Using a generic model for turbulence and acceleration, we
then consider two scenarios for production of non-thermal radiation. The first is motivated by the possibility that hard X-ray
emission is due to non-thermal Bremsstrahlung by nonrelativistic particles and attempts to produce non-thermal tails by accelerating
the electrons from the background plasma with an initial Maxwellian distribution. For acceleration rates smaller than the
Coulomb energy loss rate, the effect of energising the plasma is to primarily heat the plasma with little sign of a distinct
non-thermal tail. Such tails are discernible only for acceleration rates comparable or larger than the Coulomb loss rate.
However, these tails are accompanied by significant heating and they are present for a short time of <106 years, which is also the time that the tail will be thermalised. A longer period of acceleration at such rates will result
in a runaway situation with most particles being accelerated to very high energies. These more exact treatments confirm the
difficulty with this model, first pointed out by Petrosian (Astrophys. J. 557:560, 2001). Such non-thermal tails, even if possible, can only explain the hard X-ray but not the radio emission which needs GeV or
higher energy electrons. For these and for production of hard X-rays by the inverse Compton model, we need the second scenario
where there is injection and subsequent acceleration of relativistic electrons. It is shown that a steady state situation,
for example arising from secondary electrons produced from cosmic ray proton scattering by background protons, will most likely
lead to flatter than required electron spectra or it requires a short escape time of the electrons from the cluster. An episodic
injection of relativistic electrons, presumably from galaxies or AGN, and/or episodic generation of turbulence and shocks
by mergers can result in an electron spectrum consistent with observations but for only a short period of less than one billion
years. 相似文献
6.
Modern hydrodynamical simulations offer nowadays a powerful means to trace the evolution of the X-ray properties of the intra-cluster
medium (ICM) during the cosmological history of the hierarchical build up of galaxy clusters. In this paper we review the
current status of these simulations and how their predictions fare in reproducing the most recent X-ray observations of clusters.
After briefly discussing the shortcomings of the self-similar model, based on assuming that gravity only drives the evolution
of the ICM, we discuss how the processes of gas cooling and non-gravitational heating are expected to bring model predictions
into better agreement with observational data. We then present results from the hydrodynamical simulations, performed by different
groups, and how they compare with observational data. As terms of comparison, we use X-ray scaling relations between mass,
luminosity, temperature and pressure, as well as the profiles of temperature and entropy. The results of this comparison can
be summarised as follows: (a) simulations, which include gas cooling, star formation and supernova feedback, are generally successful in reproducing the
X-ray properties of the ICM outside the core regions; (b) simulations generally fail in reproducing the observed “cool core” structure, in that they have serious difficulties in
regulating overcooling, thereby producing steep negative central temperature profiles. This discrepancy calls for the need
of introducing other physical processes, such as energy feedback from active galactic nuclei, which should compensate the
radiative losses of the gas with high density, low entropy and short cooling time, which is observed to reside in the innermost
regions of galaxy clusters. 相似文献
7.
We describe the formation of hot intergalactic gas along with baryonic remnants in galaxy halos. In this scenario, the mass and metallicity of the hot intracluster and intragroup gas relates directly to the production of baryonic remnants during the collapse of galactic halos. We construct a schematic but self-consistent model in which early bursts of star formation lead to a large remnant population in the halo, and to the outflow of stellar ejecta into the halo and ultimately the Local Group. We consider local as well as high redshift constraints on this scenario. This study suggests that the microlensing objects in the Galactic halo may predominantly be 0.5M white dwarfs, assuming that the initial mass function for early star formation favored the formation of intermediate mass stars with m 1M. However, the bulk of the baryonic dark matter in this scenario is associated with the ejecta of the white dwarf progenitors, and resides in the hot intergalactic medium. 相似文献
8.
9.
M. E. Wiedenbeck W. R. Binns A. C. Cummings A. J. Davis G. A. de Nolfo M. H. Israel R. A. Leske R. A. Mewaldt E. C. Stone T. T. von Rosenvinge 《Space Science Reviews》2007,130(1-4):415-429
The galactic cosmic rays arriving near Earth, which include both stable and long-lived nuclides from throughout the periodic
table, consist of a mix of stellar nucleosynthesis products accelerated by shocks in the interstellar medium (ISM) and fragmentation
products made by high-energy collisions during propagation through the ISM. Through the study of the composition and spectra
of a variety of elements and isotopes in this diverse sample, models have been developed for the origin, acceleration, and
transport of galactic cosmic rays. We present an overview of the current understanding of these topics emphasizing the insights
that have been gained through investigations in the charge and energy ranges Z≲30 and E/M≲1 GeV/nuc, and particularly those using data obtained from the Cosmic Ray Isotope Spectrometer on NASA’s Advanced Composition
Explorer mission. 相似文献
10.
Simon Glover 《Space Science Reviews》2005,117(3-4):445-508
In this review, I survey our current understanding of how the very first stars in the universe formed, with a focus on three
main areas of interest: the formation of the first protogalaxies and the cooling of gas within them, the nature and extent
of fragmentation within the cool gas, and the physics – in particular the interplay between protostellar accretion and protostellar
feedback – that serves to determine the final stellar mass.
In each of these areas, I have attempted to show how our thinking has developed over recent years, aided in large part by
the increasing ease with which we can now perform detailed numerical simulations of primordial star formation. I have also
tried to indicate the areas where our understanding remains incomplete, and to identify some of the most important unsolved
problems. 相似文献
11.
Høg E. Pagel B.E.J. Portinari L. Thejll P.A. Macdonald J. Girardi L. 《Space Science Reviews》1998,84(1-2):115-126
The primordial helium abundance YP is important for cosmology and the ratio Y/Z of the changes relative to primordial abundances constrains models of stellar evolution. While the most accurate estimates of YP come from emission lines in extragalactic H II regions, they involve an extrapolation to zero metallicity which itself is closely tied up with the slope Y/Z. Recently certain systematic effects have come to light in this exercise which make it useful to have an independent estimate of Y/Z from fine structure in the main sequence of nearby stars. We derive such an estimate from Hipparcos data for stars with Z Z and find values between 2 and 3, which are consistent with stellar models, but still have a large uncertainty. 相似文献
12.
This paper presents an application of the recent relativistic HLLC approximate Riemann solver by Mignone & Bodo to magnetized
flows with vanishing normal component of the magnetic field. The numerical scheme is validated in two dimensions by investigating
the propagation of axisymmetric jets with toroidal magnetic fields. The selected jet models show that the HLLC solver yields
sharper resolution of contact and shear waves and better convergence properties over the traditional HLL approach. 相似文献
13.
The Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium (WHIM) is thought to contribute about 40–50% to the baryonic budget at the present evolution
stage of the universe. The observed large scale structure is likely to be due to gravitational growth of density fluctuations
in the post-inflation era. The evolving cosmic web is governed by non-linear gravitational growth of the initially weak density
fluctuations in the dark energy dominated cosmology. Non-linear structure formation, accretion and merging processes, star
forming and AGN activity produce gas shocks in the WHIM. Shock waves are converting a fraction of the gravitation power to
thermal and non-thermal emission of baryonic/leptonic matter. They provide the most likely way to power the luminous matter
in the WHIM. The plasma shocks in the WHIM are expected to be collisionless. Collisionless shocks produce a highly non-equilibrium
state with anisotropic temperatures and a large differences in ion and electron temperatures. We discuss the ion and electron
heating by the collisionless shocks and then review the plasma processes responsible for the Coulomb equilibration and collisional
ionisation equilibrium of oxygen ions in the WHIM. MHD-turbulence produced by the strong collisionless shocks could provide
a sizeable non-thermal contribution to the observed Doppler parameter of the UV line spectra of the WHIM. 相似文献
14.
Large-scale structure formation, accretion and merging processes, AGN activity produce cosmological gas shocks. The shocks
convert a fraction of the energy of gravitationally accelerated flows to internal energy of the gas. Being the main gas-heating
agent, cosmological shocks could amplify magnetic fields and accelerate energetic particles via the multi-fluid plasma relaxation
processes. We first discuss the basic properties of standard single-fluid shocks. Cosmological plasma shocks are expected
to be collisionless. We then review the plasma processes responsible for the microscopic structure of collisionless shocks.
A tiny fraction of the particles crossing the shock is injected into the non-thermal energetic component that could get a
substantial part of the ram pressure power dissipated at the shock. The energetic particles penetrate deep into the shock
upstream producing an extended shock precursor. Scaling relations for postshock ion temperature and entropy as functions of
shock velocity in strong collisionless multi-fluid shocks are discussed. We show that the multi-fluid nature of collisionless
shocks results in excessive gas compression, energetic particle acceleration, precursor gas heating, magnetic field amplification
and non-thermal emission. Multi-fluid shocks provide a reduced gas entropy production and could also modify the observable
thermodynamic scaling relations for clusters of galaxies. 相似文献
15.
N. Werner F. Durret T. Ohashi S. Schindler R. P. C. Wiersma 《Space Science Reviews》2008,134(1-4):337-362
Because of their deep gravitational potential wells, clusters of galaxies retain all the metals produced by the stellar populations
of the member galaxies. Most of these metals reside in the hot plasma which dominates the baryon content of clusters. This
makes them excellent laboratories for the study of the nucleosynthesis and chemical enrichment history of the Universe. Here
we review the history, current possibilities and limitations of the abundance studies, and the present observational status
of X-ray measurements of the chemical composition of the intra-cluster medium. We summarise the latest progress in using the
abundance patterns in clusters to put constraints on theoretical models of supernovae and we show how cluster abundances provide
new insights into the star-formation history of the Universe. 相似文献
16.
P. C. Frisch 《Space Science Reviews》2007,130(1-4):355-365
The properties of interstellar matter at the Sun are regulated by our location with respect to a void in the local matter
distribution, known as the Local Bubble. The Local Bubble (LB) is bounded by associations of massive stars and fossil supernovae
that have disrupted dense interstellar matter (ISM), driving low density intermediate velocity ISM into the void. The Sun
appears to be located in one of these flows of low density material. This nearby interstellar matter, dubbed the Local Fluff,
has a bulk velocity of ∼19 km s−1 in the local standard of rest. The flow is coming from the direction of the gas and dust ring formed where the Loop I supernova
remnant merges into the LB. Optical polarization data suggest that the local interstellar magnetic field lines are draped
over the heliosphere. A longstanding discrepancy between the high thermal pressure of plasma filling the LB and low thermal
pressures in the embedded Local Fluff cloudlets is partially mitigated when the ram pressure component parallel to the cloudlet
flow direction is included. 相似文献
17.
ASAP (Analysis System for Astrophysical Plasmas), developed at the Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo, is a package of procedures based on IDL. It is aimed at the detailed presentation of theoretical models of astrophysical plasmas and the accurate comparison with observational data, up to fittings of specific observations. It is also useful for the prediction of specific observations, and for the simulation of the expected performances of forthcoming instruments, for instance those on board SOHO. 相似文献
18.
The differences between the composition of Galactic cosmic rays and that of the interstellar medium are manifold, and they
contain a wealth of information about the varying processes that created them. These differences reveal much about the initial
mixing of freshly synthesized matter, the chemistry and differentiation of the interstellar medium, and the mechanisms and
environment of ion injection and acceleration. Here we briefly explore these processes and show how they combine to create
the peculiar, but potentially universal, composition of the cosmic rays and how measurements of the composition can provide
a unique measure of the mixing ratio of the fresh supernova ejecta and the old interstellar medium in this initial phase of
interstellar mixing.
In particular, we show that the major abundance differences between the cosmic rays and the average interstellar medium can
all result from cosmic ray ion injection by sputtering and scattering from fast refractory oxide grains in a mix of fresh
supernova ejecta and old interstellar material. Since the bulk of the Galactic supernovae occur in the cores of superbubbles,
the bulk of the cosmic rays are accelerated there out of such a mix. We show that the major abundance differences all imply
a mixing ratio of the total masses of fresh supernova ejecta and old interstellar material in such cores is roughly 1 to 4.
That means that the metallicity of ∼3 times solar, since the ejecta has a metallicity of ∼8 times that of the present interstellar
medium. 相似文献
19.
We present the results of a study aimed at determining the 12C/13C ratio in two samples of planetary nebulae (PNe) by means of mm-wave observations of 12CO and 13CO. The first group includes six PNe which have been observed in the 3He+ hyperfine transition; the other group consists of 23 nebulae with rich molecular envelopes. We have determined the isotopic ratio in 14 objects and the results indicate a range of values between 9 and 23. In particular, three PNe have ratios well below the value predicted by standard evolutionary models ( 20), indicating that some extra-mixing process has occurred in these stars. We briefly discuss the implications of our results for standard and nonstandard stellar nucleosynthesis. 相似文献
20.
C. Ferrari F. Govoni S. Schindler A. M. Bykov Y. Rephaeli 《Space Science Reviews》2008,134(1-4):93-118
We review observations of extended regions of radio emission in clusters; these include diffuse emission in ‘relics’, and
the large central regions commonly referred to as ‘halos’. The spectral observations, as well as Faraday rotation measurements
of background and cluster radio sources, provide the main evidence for large-scale intracluster magnetic fields and significant
densities of relativistic electrons. Implications from these observations on acceleration mechanisms of these electrons are
reviewed, including turbulent and shock acceleration, and also the origin of some of the electrons in collisions of relativistic
protons by ambient protons in the (thermal) gas. Improved knowledge of non-thermal phenomena in clusters requires more extensive
and detailed radio measurements; we briefly review prospects for future observations. 相似文献