Design of aircraft structures against threat of bird strikes

In this paper, a method to design bird-strike-resistant aircraft structures is presented and illustrated through examples. The focus is on bird strike experiments and simulations. The explicit finite element software PAM-CRASH is employed to conduct bird strike simulations, and a coupled Smooth Particles Hydrodynamic (SPH) and Finite Element (FE) method is used to simulate the interaction between a bird and a target structure. The SPH method is explained, and an SPH bird model is established. Constitutive models for various structural materials, such as aluminum alloys, composite materials, honeycomb, and foam materials that are used in aircraft structures, are presented, and model parameters are identified by conducting various material tests. Good agreements between simulation results and experimental data suggest that the numerical model is capable of predicting the dynamic responses of various aircraft structures under a bird strike, and numerical simulation can be used as a tool to design bird-strike-resistant aircraft structures.     

Numerical simulation of flows around helicopters at DLR and ONERA

This paper presents an overview of recent activities in CFD research conducted within cooperations between DLR and ONERA for the simulation of helicopter arerodynamics. These activities are mainly illustrated by two topics in the framework of a previous 3-year bilateral cooperation on `Rotorcraft CFD code Development', the objective of which was the assessement, comparison and further improvement of the DLR and ONERA Euler/Navier–Stokes methods for the prediction of the flow around isolated helicopter rotors. The first topic is devoted to a comparison of two different grid strategies for time-accurate inviscid flow computations of multibladed rotors in forward flight from the solution of Euler equations: the moving grid approach by ONERA and the overlapping grid technique by DLR. The second topic is concerned with a comparison of respective Euler/Kirchhoff aeroacoustic methods for the prediction of High Speed Impulsive noise of rotors. For the assessment and improvement of Navier–Stokes methods for fuselage drag prediction, a comparison between DLR and ONERA Navier–Stokes solutions achieved within the prediction phase of the Brite/EuRam European project `HELIFUSE' is also presented. The paper is concluded by a summary of ongoing DLR and ONERA research activities in the framework of the new long-term project `CHANCE' (Complete Helicopter AdvaNced Computational Environment) for the development and assessment of common Franco-German CFD tools for the complete helicopter accounting for trim and dynamics.     

Simulation methodology for high velocity impact in composite aircraft structures

The paper summarises the IMT Project HICAS on ‘High Velocity Impact of Composite Aircraft Structures’ which was concerned with developing a design methodology and FE simulation tools for predicting the high velocity impact response of composite aircraft structures. Achievements include measurement of high rate mechanical properties of three aircraft composite systems, development of new failure models for composites under high rate loads, implementation of models into commercial FE codes and code validation by simulation of impact in test structures.     

复合材料飞机结构损伤容限特性

 复合材料用于飞机结构已有10多年的历史,由于复合材料的特点,必须重新研究原来适用于金属结构的损伤容限设计的一系列规范、手册和数据在复合材料结构中的适用性。本文介绍了欧美各国在复合材料飞机结构损伤容限特性方面的研究概况,并且从对有关规范的补充说明、缺陷性质和验证标准、飞机结构损伤容限评定方法、分析方法和设计方法等几个方面进行了综述。     

Composite materials for primary aircraft structures: from development phase to high volume production rate

From 1980’s decade, the introduction of carbon composite materials in structural applications has been consistently increased in the successive generations of civil aircraft from Single Aisle to Middle-long Range to achieve a culminant point with more than 50% in structure weight in recent commercial civil aircraft. This evolution, done through successive iterations, has been possible by combining in the same time the improvement of intrinsic composite material performances and its transformation into prepreg production technologies together with the development of new manufacturing process for material lay-up automation at composite shop-floor manufacturer of aircraft composite parts. New challenges are still coming to continuously develop materials and technologies in order to pursue the production more cost-effective composite parts. Associated to higher aircraft production rate for single aisle, new challenges may force material and aircraft designers and producers to furthermore drive new products and processes introduction and new ways of transformation within in next decade of composite aircraft designs. We propose to illustrate these trends using past and recent developments and our return of experience from Hexcel on Civil Aircraft programs.     

新一代大型客机复合材料

 大量采用复合材料结构是新一代大型客机机体结构设计的突出特点,用量已达结构重量50%。复合材料结构不仅带来了明显的减重效益,而且带来了结构耐腐蚀、疲劳和维护等性能的改善提高。波音787飞机人性化设计的全复合材料机身使乘坐舒适性和便利性得到显著改善。民机复合材料结构技术重点研究解决了复合材料自然环境老化、大型翼面壁板整体成型、机身大开口区载荷重新分布和应力集中、地面维护装备冲击损伤、健康检测等关键技术问题,并且建立了以中模高强碳纤维/韧性环氧树脂复合材料热压罐成形工艺为主的大型客机复合材料结构材料体系。对复合材料机翼和机身结构的设计和工艺关键技术问题做了较为详尽的介绍。     

复合材料C型梁回弹变形影响因素权重分析

复合材料C型梁制造回弹变形的主要影响因素有几何结构、铺层间剪切效应和模具作用等。在复材固化过程中,这些因素共同作用,导致构件发生变形,对构件的几何精度产生不利影响。针对大飞机结构中常用的复合材料C型梁,通过理论分析、有限元计算和试验测量等方法,研究了上述因素对回弹变形的影响机理及其作用的权重,为精确预测和控制C型梁的回弹提供了依据。     

SCC evaluation of a 2297 Al-Li alloy rolled plate using the slow-strain rate technique

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of 2297 Al-Li alloy in 1 M NaCl + 0.01 M H₂O₂ solution (CP solution) and 1 M NaCl + 0.01 M H₂O₂ + 0.6 M Na₂SO₄ solution (CPS solution) was investigated by slow-strain rate tests at various strain rates ranging from 10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ to 10⁻⁷ s⁻¹. The roles of H₂O₂ and SO₄²⁻ in the corrosion process were estimated by potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. 2297 Al-Li alloy does not fracture ascribed to SCC in CP solution, while it undergoes SCC in CPS solution. In CPS solution, with a decreasing strain rate from 10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ to 10⁻⁷ s⁻¹, the SCC susceptibility firstly rises and then declines exhibiting a peak value at a strain rate of 10⁻⁶ s⁻¹. H₂O₂ promotes the active dissolution while SO₄²⁻ lowers the corrosion rate. The SCC fracture is associated with a decline in the dissolution rate of the crack tip by SO₄²⁻, which leads to stress concentration. In CPS solution, a reduction in the local dissolution rate of the crack tip leads to stress concentration, resulting in SCC fracture. As the preferred initiation site for a crack, pits also show a noteworthy effect on SCC of 2297 Al-Li alloy.     

民机复合材料典型结构件检修间隔的概率分析

民机复合材料结构在服役过程中的损伤主要来源于意外冲击,会大幅度降低结构强度,影响飞机安全.以某型飞机外翼为例,考虑运行过程中意外冲击损伤的产生、载荷超限和维护过程中损伤的漏检等因素,采用概率分析方法对结构失效概率进行分析,并计算详细目视检测方法对应的检修间隔.结果表明,计算得到的检修间隔略大于工程实际中"4C"值.此概率分析方法用来确定复合材料结构件检修间隔是可行的,并可以实现检修间隔的动态化调整.     

数值空气动力学在DLR(德国宇航研究院)

德国在若干年前启动的国家CFD项目MEGAFLOW集中了DLR、大学以及航空工业界的许多CFD研究开发工作,目的是开发并验证能满足工业实践所要求的可靠并有效的数值工具,以对全机进行空气动力模拟.MEGAFLOW软件系统包括多区结构网格中求解N-S方程的软件FLOWer和在非结构网格中的软件TAU.两软件均已达到很高的成熟度并为DLR和德国航空工业广泛地应用于新飞机的设计过程.最近又启动了其后续项目MEGADESIGN和MegaOpt,旨在开发和增强外形设计及优化的有效数值方法.着重介绍了软件最近的改进及其计算粘性流动绕复杂飞机外形的能力.     

Aeroelastic optimization of an aerobatic aircraft wing structure

This paper aims at presenting an investigation into a minimum weight optimal design and aeroelastic tailoring of an aerobatic aircraft wing structure. Firstly, analytical and FE models were created for the original metallic wing and an improved composite wing box structures. In order to validate the numerical models, predicted vibration parameters of the metallic wing box were compared with the experimental results. Comparison was also made for the predicted stress results between the metallic and the composite wing box structures of different dimensions and laminate layups. Secondly, based on a minimum weight composite wing box model of adequate strength the investigation was focused on the aeroelastic tailoring of the wing box by employing the gradient-based deterministic optimization method. The study demonstrates that in addition to a significant weight saving, up to 30% increase of flutter speed for the composite wing box can be achieved by optimizing the fibre orientations of the wing skin and spar web laminates. The optimized laminates are trimmed and reinforced to meet the manufacture and strength requirements with little compromise of flutter speed and a minor weight penalty.     

某型民用运输机主起落架连接区结构静力试验

飞机静力试验是飞机试验的重要内容之一,是验证飞机结构强度和静力分析正确性的重要手段。为验证某型民用运输机主起落架连接区结构满足静强度要求,以及有限元计算分析的正确性,在静力试验飞机上进行了主起落架连接区结构静力试验。通过全机有限元模型和细节有限元模型分析计算,进行加载、应力\应变、位移试验数据与有限元计算值的分析对比,计算值与试验数据符合较好。     

A systematic approach to nonlinear rotorcraft model identification

The development of a powerful parameter estimation routine and its integration into the simulation environment HOST is described. With this tool approaches are being made towards new strategies of mathematical modeling, aimed at providing highly accurate and nevertheless run-time efficient simulation models. The identification routine is capable of optimizing parameterized models in both dynamic time domain simulation and static (e.g. trim state variation) conditions. Examples of both cases are presented to emphasize the improvement in the system response prediction and to demonstrate the abilities of the identification techniques in combination with the nonlinear simulation platform. This article reviews the activities and achievements accomplished by the DLR Institute of Flight Research and the ONERA Systems Control and Flight Dynamics Department during the last few years in the research on rotorcraft flight dynamics modeling and model identification. Future activities that require extensive high fidelity modeling are in the scope of the current and coming modeling activities that include the use of the presented methods and software technologies.     

温度对压电陶瓷传感器信号传输的影响研究

近年来,飞机结构健康监测技术得到了快速的发展,并在航空航天等领域得到了广泛的应用,特别是在碳纤维复合材料结构的状态监控与损伤诊断方面更是明确了功能材料与智能结构的发展趋势。首先分析了航空领域典型的结构健康监测技术,包括模态法、机电阻抗法、超声法、声发射法、Lamb波法,并对其中的Lamb波法进行深入讨论。而后,开展了基于Lamb波技术的温度对压电陶瓷传感器信号传输影响的实验研究。该研究考虑了实验装置及传感器在高温环境下的特性,特制了用于测试压电陶瓷传感器信号传输特性的高温实验装置,将压电陶瓷传感器通过机械方式安装于实验装置上,开展环境实验。分别对五档不同温度下的实验结果进行分析,研究结果表明:温度对压电陶瓷传感器信号传输具有一定影响,并给出了信号受温度影响的变化规律。     

SCC investigation of low alloy ultra-high strength steel 30CrMnSiNi2A in 3.5wt%NaCl solution by slow strain rate technique

To evaluate stress corrosion cracking(SCC) mechanism of low alloy ultra-high strength steel 30CrMnSiNi2 A in environment containing NaCl, SCC behavior of the steel in 3.5wt% NaCl solution is investigated by slow strain rate technique(SSRT) with various strain rates and applied potentials, surface analysis technique, and electrochemical measurements. SCC susceptibility of the steel increases rapidly with strain rate decreasing from 1 · 10 5s 1to 5 · 10 7s 1, and becomes stable when strain rate is lower than 5 · 10 7s 1. SCC propagation of the steel in the solution at open circuit potential(OCP) needs sufficient hydrogen which is supplied at a certain strain rate.Fracture surface at OCP has similar characteristics with that at cathodic polarization 1000 mVSCE, which presents characteristic fractography of hydrogen induced cracking(HIC).All of these indicate that SCC behavior of the steel in the solution at OCP is mainly controlled by HIC rather than anodic dissolution(AD).     

飞行器结构设计与强度的现状与发展

 本文综合评述飞行器结构设计与强度的现状与发展,着重讨论了当前的几个重大中心课题,以求有助于型号研制和学术研究,推动航空科学技术的发展。因篇幅有限,对于现有成熟的技术与方法,不求罗列俱全。本文内容偏重于结合飞机结构,但也涉及航天器结构。     

考虑复合材料蒙皮稳定性的飞机翼面结构布局优化设计

 复合材料蒙皮稳定性是飞机翼面结构设计需要考虑的重要方面。由于翼面结构稳定性理论分析的复杂性,工程中,通常采用与理论分析相比拟的简化方法、使用简便可靠的经验公式在设计过程中进行稳定性校核。多墙式结构是当前翼面结构中普遍采用的结构形式,墙的布局和蒙皮的厚度对复合材料蒙皮的临界屈曲载荷有着重要影响。因此,针对多墙式翼面结构,以工程经验公式为基础,以蒙皮单位长度上的的重量为优化目标,以墙的布局参数和蒙皮厚度为设计变量,以临界失稳载荷为约束,建立了一种考虑复合材料蒙皮稳定性的翼面结构布局优化问题的数学模型,导出了目标函数敏度计算的解析式,并提出了优化问题的求解方法。以翼盒结构为例,验证了该方法的有效性。     

大展弦比复合材料机翼结构建模与气动弹性分析

建立了具有任意截面形状的大展弦比复合材料翼的结构模型。研究了机翼的两种铺设方式：即周向均匀刚度配置（CUS）和周向反对称刚度配置（CAS）。对于复合箱梁情形,目前的结构建模方法正确性通过ANSYS有限单元软件得到了验证。为了研究具有NACA0012翼型的大展弦比复合材料机翼的气动弹性问题,利用线性ONERA空气动力模型来描述小攻角情形下的非定常空气动力载荷。最后,利用U—g法预示了机翼在各种复合层铺设角度下的颤振速度。     

Finite element methodologies development to simulate the behaviour of composite fuselage structure and correlation with drop test

Within the frame work of Brite-Euram programme CRASURV ‘Commercial Aircraft — Design for Crash Survivability’, technology is being developed for the design of composite air frames with respect to crashworthiness. A significant part of the project consists of the design, fabrication and drop-testing of two representative composite fuselage sections, to generate the experimental data needed for the validation of new energy absorbing structural concepts, validation of simulation tools to model and analyse these structures subjected to crash loads.     

应用于飞行器风洞试验的绳牵引并联机构技术综述

首先概述了法国航空局SACSO项目关于绳牵引并联机构应用于飞行器风洞试验的研究工作,然后从六自由度绳牵引并联机构的结构设计、运动学及性能分析、工作空间的分析与综合、静刚度分析、运动控制和力控制等六方面,详细分析了六自由度绳牵引并联机构应用于飞行器风洞试验中的关键技术。分析结果表明:六自由度绳牵引并联机构必须根据飞行器的类型,以工作空间大小为依据进行构型设计;其运动控制方案可借用PID控制或自适应控制,其优点是便于动力学模型的线性化和解耦;其力控制方案可借用经典的阻抗控制和力/位置混合控制,但适用于飞行器风洞试验的六自由度绳牵引并联机构的更完善的力控制策略还有待进一步的研究。