Self-sustaining Mars colonies utilizing the North Polar Cap and the Martian atmosphere

A revolutionary new concept for the early establishment of robust, self-sustaining Martian colonies is described. The colonies would be located on the North Polar Cap of Mars and utilize readily available water ice and the CO2 Martian atmosphere as raw materials to produce all of the propellants, fuel, air, water, plastics, food, and other supplies needed by the colony. The colonists would live in thermally insulated large, comfortable habitats under the ice surface, fully shielded from cosmic rays. The habitats and supplies would be produced by a compact, lightweight (~4 metric tons) nuclear powered robotic unit termed ALPH (Atomic Liberation of Propellant and Habitat), which would land 2 years before the colonists arrived. Using a compact, lightweight 5 MW (th) nuclear reactor/steam turbine (1 MW(e)) power source and small process units (e.g., H2O electrolyzer, H2 and O2 liquefiers, methanator, plastic polymerizer, food producer, etc.) ALPH would stockpile many hundreds of tons of supplies in melt cavities under the ice, plus insulated habitats, to be in place and ready for use when the colonists landed. With the stockpiled supplies, the colonists would construct and operate rovers and flyers to explore the surface of Mars. ALPH greatly reduces the amount of Earth supplied material needed and enables large permanent colonies on Mars. It also greatly reduces human and mission risks and vastly increases the capability not only for exploration of the surrounding Martian surface, but also the ice cap itself. The North Polar Cap is at the center of the vast ancient ocean that covered much of the Martian Northern Hemisphere. Small, nuclear heated robotic probes would travel deep (1 km or more) inside the ice cap, collecting data on its internal structure, the composition and properties of the ancient Martian atmosphere, and possible evidence of ancient life forms (microfossils, traces of DNA, etc.) that were deposited either by wind or as remnants of the ancient ocean. Details of the ALPH system, which is based on existing technology, are presented. ALPH units could be developed and demonstrated on Earth ice sheets within a few years. An Earth-Mars space transport architecture is described, in which Mars produced propellant and supplies for return journeys to Earth would be lifted with relatively low DeltaV to Mars orbit, and from there transported back to Earth orbit, enabling faster and lower cost trips from Earth to Mars. The exploration capability and quality of life in a mature Martian colony of 500 persons located on the North Polar Cap is outlined.     

Identification of planetary wave patterns associated with ice seasonal sublimation/condensation dynamics in the polar regions of mars,based on IR mapping spectrometer OMEGA onboard <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mars Express</Emphasis>

Channel C of the orbital hyperspectrometer OMEGA onboard Mars Express spacecraft has delivered data on the distribution and seasonal variability of water ice spectral features at 1.25, 1.5, 2.0 μm, based on which one may conclude about the thickness of ice coverage and microstructure of the upper, optically active ice layer on the Martian surface. Data covering polar regions during spring-to-summer periods of both hemispheres have been analyzed. Microstructure of the North polar cap, as well as the residual frost deposits of the seasonal South polar cap, have revealed remarkable zonal variations with regularly located maxima. Based on the comparison with the atmospheric general circulation model results, it has been proposed that these variations result from the impact of mesoscale inertial waves in the circumpolar vortex on water exchange processes between the atmosphere and planetary surface.     

火星及其环境

火星环境类似于地球,而探索其生命存在是重大的科学任务。在火星探测中,对火星及其环境的了解与研究是重要的任务目标,事关探测任务的成功实施。文章对国外火星探测已发布的成果进行收集和整理,其中包含大量的相关数据。这些知识和数据是火星探测任务设计的输入条件,可为我国火星探测计划的制定提供参考依据。     

地面力学在火星壤力学参数估计研究中的 进展与展望

掌握火星土壤的力学参数是保障火星车顺利完成巡视探测的关键。通过对已成功开展的火星巡视探测任务进行汇总，探讨了复杂火星地貌对火星车移动性能的影响，分析了基于地面力学理论的火星土壤力学参数估计方法，包括：基于车轮的火星壤在轨力学参数估计方法和基于轮壤力学模型的力学参数辨识方法。最后，对未来关于地面力学在星壤力学参数评估进行了探讨。     

Subfreezing activity of microorganisms and the potential habitability of Mars' polar regions

The availability of water-ice at the surface in the Mars polar cap and within the top meter of the high-latitude regolith raises the question of whether liquid water can exist there under some circumstances and possibly support the existence of biota. We examine the minimum temperatures at which liquid water can exist at ice grain-dust grain and ice grain-ice grain contacts, the minimum subfreezing temperatures at which terrestrial organisms can grow or multiply, and the maximum temperatures that can occur in martian high-latitude and polar regions, to see if there is overlap. Liquid water can exist at grain contacts above about -20 degrees C. Measurements of growth in organisms isolated from Siberian permafrost indicate growth at -10 degrees C and metabolism at -20 degrees C. Mars polar and high-latitude temperatures rise above -20 degrees C at obliquities greater than ~40 degrees, and under some conditions rise above 0 degrees C. Thus, the environment in the Mars polar regions has overlapped habitable conditions within relatively recent epochs, and Mars appears to be on the edge of being habitable at present. The easy accessibility of the polar surface layer relative to the deep subsurface make these viable locations to search for evidence of life.     

火星进入气体辐射加热研究进展

针对飞行器进入火星大气时气体辐射加热对防热设计带来不确定性，在简述火星探测和气体辐射研究的发展历程的基础上，对火星进入气体辐射加热研究的进展进行综述。首先，针对火星大气环境描述了气体辐射加热的概念和问题由来。其次，重点综述了近年来火星进入气体辐射加热基础模型的数值和试验研究进展，其中包括：热化学非平衡气体动力学、气体辐射特性和辐射传输的计算模型与方法等数值研究；地面测试设备、试验技术和模拟火星大气环境的气体辐射测量与验证等试验研究。再次，综述了流动辐射耦合和后体气体辐射加热等火星进入器设计方面开展的研究。最后，对未来火星进入气体辐射加热研究进行了展望，提出了研究建议。     

一种共轴双旋翼式火星飞行器设计及其试验验证

针对火星飞行器探测需求,提出了一种共轴双旋翼式火星飞行器,基于计算流体力学方法优选了桨叶翼型、平面形状和扭转角等结构参数,基于叶素动量理论建立了旋翼气动力学模型,利用数值模拟方法选择了旋翼转速、旋翼间距和桨叶安装角等飞行参数,设计了原理样机"火星飞鸟-I"的结构与控制系统。构建了火星大气环境模拟器和重力补偿与运动约束装置,开展了模拟火星环境下旋翼式飞行器地面飞行试验,验证了共轴双旋翼式火星飞行器的推进性能,展望了旋翼式火星飞行器技术的发展方向。研究成果对我国开展的火星探测工程具有重要借鉴价值。     

Conceptual study and key technology development for Mars Aeroflyby sample collection

Conceptual study of Mars Aeroflyby Sample Collection (MASC) is conducted as a part of the next Mars exploration mission currently entertained in Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. In the mission scenario, an atmospheric entry vehicle is flown into the Martian atmosphere, collects the Martian dust particles as well as atmospheric gases during the guided hypersonic flight, exits the Martian atmosphere, and is inserted into a parking orbit from which a return system departs for the earth to deliver the dust and gas samples. In order to accomplish a controlled flight and a successful orbit insertion, aeroassist orbit transfer technologies are introduced into the guidance and control system. System analysis is conducted to assess the feasibility and to make a conceptual design, finding that the MASC system is feasible at the minimum system mass of 600 kg approximately. The aerogel, which is one of the candidates for the dust sample collector, is assessed by arcjet heating tests to examine its behavior when exposed to high-temperature gases, as well as by particle impingement tests to evaluate its dust capturing capability.     

Characteristics of Near-Polar Atmosphere/Thermosphere of Mars at Altitudes of 125–145 km: The Data of a Radio Occultation Experiment onboard the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mars Global Surveyor</Emphasis> Spacecraft

Using data from a radio occultation experiment onboard the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, altitude variations of the scale height of the neutral atmosphere in the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars are analyzed. The averaged altitude gradient of temperature for neutrals in the thermosphere is estimated. The revealed variations of the scale height of the neutral atmosphere at zenith angles of less than 82° indicate that the near polar atmosphere is not isothermal at altitudes of 125–145 km, which experimentally confirms predictions of models of the Martian atmosphere. It is shown that when one approaches the terminator the near polar atmosphere is cooled and the effects of variation of the solar zenith angle modulate the local time effects in both hemispheres.     

火星精确着陆制导问题分析与展望

美国火星科学实验室(MSL)任务成功将“好奇”号火星车着陆到火星表面,开创了火星精确着陆探测的新局面。以MSL着陆任务为典型代表,分析了目前火星着陆探测进入、下降和着陆（Entry, Descent and Landing, EDL）过程的制导方案及制导系统的发展趋势。以在火星高海拔、复杂地形区域定点着陆为潜在工程目标,归纳了火星EDL过程面临的制导主要问题。根据未来制导系统自主性和自适应性的技术需求及潜在工程任务制导面临的问题,提出了火星EDL制导方面需要解决的关键技术,并对其在未来工程中的应用潜力进行了展望。     

Vanguard--a European robotic astrobiology-focussed Mars sub-surface mission proposal

We present a new European Mars mission proposal to build on the UK-led Beagle2 Mars mission and continue its astrobiology-focussed investigation of Mars. The small surface element to be delivered to the Martian surface--Vanguard--is designed to be carried by a Mars Express-type spacecraft bus to Mars and adopts a similar entry, descent and landing system as Beagle2. The surface element comprises a triad of robotic devices--a lander, a micro-rover of the Sojourner class for surface mobility, and three ground-penetrating moles mounted onto the rover for sub-surface penetration to 5 m depth. The major onboard instruments on the rover include a Raman spectrometer/imager, a laser plasma spectrometer, an infrared spectrometer--these laser instruments provide the basis for in situ "remote" sensing of the sub-surface Martian environment within a powerful scientific package. The moles carry the instruments' sensor head array to the sub-surface. The moles are thus required to undergo a one-way trip down the boreholes without the need for recovery of moles or samples, eliminating much of the robotic complexity invoked by such operations.     

火星太阳电池翼除尘方法综述

“萤火一号”火星探测器即将发射升空,标志着我国火星探测计划实施的开始。然而,火星尘埃在范德华力和静电力的作用下积聚在太阳电池翼的表面,使其转换效率下降,影响火星探测器的寿命。因此,开展火星太阳电池翼除尘技术的研究是非常有意义的。文章主要介绍了火星太阳电池翼的除尘方法,特别是目前最受关注的电帘除尘方法,并对其基本结构、除尘原理、除尘效率和透光性做了详细的描述,对开展火星太阳电池翼除尘技术的研究具有一定的参考作用。     

火星表面热辐射环境模拟

为了对火星表面的热辐射环境进行模拟,以辅助火星探测等任务,建立了火星大气的一维模型和土壤的一维导热模型,并与NASA的一维火星大气辐射程序相结合,得到了一套整体模拟系统。模拟获得了火星地表温度及接收到的可见光、红外辐射热流密度,分析了季节、纬度、尘暴、云层的变化对地表温度和所受太阳辐射造成的影响。模拟结果表明,纬度和季节的变化影响着太阳高度角和日照时长等因素,进而对可见光辐射造成显著影响;尘埃光学厚度的增加会削弱可见光辐射并增强红外辐射,云层光学性质的改变造成的影响与之相似但较小;四者的改变都会对地表的温度及接收到的太阳辐射热流密度造成不同程度的影响。     

Germination and growth of wheat in simulated Martian atmospheres

One design for a manned Mars base incorporates a bioregenerative life support system based upon growing higher plants at a low atmospheric pressure in a greenhouse on the Martian surface. To determine the concept's feasibility, the germination and initial growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum) was evaluated at low atmospheric pressures in simulated Martian atmosphere (SMA) and in SMA supplemented with oxygen. Total atmospheric pressures ranged from 10 to 1013 mb. No seeds germinated in pure SMA, regardless of atmospheric pressure. In SMA plus oxygen at 60 mb total pressure, germination and growth occurred but were lower than in the Earth atmosphere controls.     

中国VLBI网火星快车卫星跟踪资料的定位归算

我国已经启动了火星探测计划, 中国VLBI网（CVN）将肩负起相关探测器的测轨与定位任务     

Experiment LEND of the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter for high-resolution mapping of neutron emission of the Moon

The scientific objectives of neutron mapping of the Moon are presented as 3 investigation tasks of NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mission. Two tasks focus on mapping hydrogen content over the entire Moon and on testing the presence of water-ice deposits at the bottom of permanently shadowed craters at the lunar poles. The third task corresponds to the determination of neutron contribution to the total radiation dose at an altitude of 50 km above the Moon. We show that the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) will be capable of carrying out all 3 investigations. The design concept of LEND is presented together with results of numerical simulations of the instrument's sensitivity for hydrogen detection. The sensitivity of LEND is shown to be characterized by a hydrogen detection limit of about 100 ppm for a polar reference area with a radius of 5 km. If the presence of ice deposits in polar "cold traps" is confirmed, a unique record of many millions of years of lunar history would be obtained, by which the history of lunar impacts could be discerned from the layers of water ice and dust. Future applications of a LEND-type instrument for Mars orbital observations are also discussed.     

大气密度对降落伞充气性能的影响

尽管火星表面大气非常稀薄,但降落伞仍是火星探测着陆系统中一种重要的减速装置。文章建立了一个降落伞的充气动力学模型,并根据此模型研究了大气密度对降落伞充气性能的影响。结果表明:降落伞的充气时间和充气距离是随大气密度的减小而增大,同时,随着大气密度的减小,降落伞开始张开的速度变得非常缓慢。     

Biological potential of Martian hydrothermal systems

A source of energy to power metabolism may be a limiting factor in the abundance and spatial distribution of past or extant life on Mars. Although a global average of chemical energy available for microbial metabolism and biomass production on Mars has been estimated previously, issues of how the energy is distributed and which particular environments have the greatest potential to support life remain unresolved. We address these issues using geochemical models to evaluate the amounts of chemical energy available in one potential biological environment, Martian hydrothermal systems. In these models, host rock compositions are based upon the compositions of Martian meteorites, which are reacted at high temperature with one of three groundwater compositions. For each model, the values for Gibbs energy of reactions that are important for terrestrial chemosynthetic organisms and likely representative for putative Martian microbes are calculated. Our results indicate that substantial amounts of chemical energy may be available in these systems, depending most sensitively upon the composition of the host rock. From the standpoint of sources of metabolic energy, it is likely that suitable environments exist to support Martian life.     

大气密度对降落伞充气性能的影响

尽管火星表面大气非常稀薄，但降落伞仍是火星探测着陆系统中一种重要的减速装置。文章建立了一个降落伞的充气动力学模型，并根据此模型研究了大气密度对降落伞充气性能的影响。结果表明：降落伞的充气时间和充气距离是随大气密度的减小而增大，同时，随着大气密度的减小，降落伞开始张开的速度变得非常缓慢。     

The BOSS and BIOMEX space experiments on the EXPOSE-R2 mission: Endurance of the desert cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis under simulated space vacuum,Martian atmosphere,UVC radiation and temperature extremes.

The proposed space experiments BOSS (Biofilm Organisms Surfing Space) and BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars experiment) will take place on the space exposure facility EXPOSE-R2 on the International Space Station (ISS), which is set to be launched in 2014. In BOSS the hypothesis to be tested is that microorganisms grown as biofilms, hence embedded in self-produced extracellular polymeric substances, are more tolerant to space and Martian conditions compared to their planktonic counterparts. Various microbial biofilms have been developed including those obtained from the cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis isolated from hot and cold deserts. The prime objective of BIOMEX is to evaluate to what extent biomolecules are resistant to, and can maintain their stability under, space and Mars-like conditions; therefore a variety of pigments and cell components are under investigation to establish a biosignature data base; e.g. a Raman spectral library to be used for extraterrestrial life biosignatures. The secondary objective of BIOMEX is to investigate the endurance of extremophiles, focusing on their interactions with Lunar and Martian mineral analogues. Ground-based studies are currently being carried out in the framework of EVTs (Experiment Verification Tests) by exposing selected organisms to space and Martian simulations. Results on a desert strain of Chroococcidiopsis obtained from the first set of EVT, e.g. space vacuum, Mars atmosphere, UVC radiation, temperature cycles and extremes, suggested that dried biofilms exhibited an enhanced survival compared to planktonic lifestyle. Moreover the protection provided by a Martian mineral analogue (S-MRS) to the sub-cellular integrities of Chroococcidiopsis against UVC radiation supports the endurance of this cyanobacterium under extraterrestrial conditions and its relevance in the development of life detection strategies.