Stepping stones to the future: Achieving a sustainable lunar outpost

The current emphasis in the US and internationally on lunar robotic missions is generally viewed as a precursor to possible future human missions to the Moon. As initially framed, the implementation of high level policies such as the US Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) might have been limited to either human lunar sortie missions, or to the testing at the Moon of concepts-of-operations and systems for eventual human missions to Mars [White House, Vision for Space Exploration, Washington, DC, 14 January, 2004. [1]]. However, recently announced (December 2006) US goals go much further: these plans now place at the center of future US—and perhaps international—human spaceflight activities a long-term commitment to an outpost on the Moon.Based on available documents, a human lunar outpost could be emplaced as early as the 2020–2025 timeframe, and would involve numerous novel systems, new technologies and unique operations requirements. As such, substantial investments in research and development (R&D) will be necessary prior to, during, and following the deployment of such an outpost. It seems possible that such an outpost will be an international endeavor, not just the undertaking of a single country—and the US has actively courted partners in the VSE. However, critical questions remain concerning an international lunar outpost. What might such an outpost accomplish? To what extent will “sustainability” be built into the outpost? And, most importantly, what will be the outpost's life cycle cost (LCC)?This paper will explore these issues with a view toward informing key policy and program decisions that must be made during the next several years. The paper will (1) describe a high-level analytical model of a modest lunar outpost, (2) examine (using this model) the parametric characteristics of the outpost in terms of the three critical questions indicated above, and (3) present rough estimates of the relationships of outpost goals and “sustainability” to LCC. The paper will also consider possible outpost requirements for near-term investments in enabling research in light of experiences in past advanced technology programs.     

SinterHab

This project describes a design study for a core module on a Lunar South Pole outpost, constructed by 3D printing technology with the use of in-situ resources and equipped with a bio-regenerative life support system. The module would be a hybrid of deployable (CLASS II) and in-situ built (CLASS III) structures. It would combine deployable membrane structures and pre-integrated rigid elements with a sintered regolith shell for enhanced radiation and micrometeorite shielding. The closed loop ecological system would support a sustainable presence on the Moon with particular focus on research activities. The core module accommodates from four to eight people, and provides laboratories as a test bed for development of new lunar technologies directly in the environment where they will be used. SinterHab also includes an experimental garden for development of new bio-regenerative life support system elements. The project explores these various concepts from an architectural point-of-view particularly, as they constitute the building, construction and interior elements. The construction method for SinterHab is based on 3D printing by sintering of the lunar regolith. Sinterator robotics 3D printing technology proposed by NASA JPL enables construction of future generations of large lunar settlements with little imported material and the use of solar energy. The regolith is processed, placed and sintered by the Sinterator robotics system which combines the NASA ATHLETE and the Chariot remotely controlled rovers. Microwave sintering creates a rigid structure in the form of walls, vaults and other architectural elements. The interior is coated with a layer of inflatable membranes inspired by the TransHab project. The life-support system is mainly bio-regenerative and several parts of the system are intrinsically multifunctional and serve more than one purpose. The plants for food production are also an efficient part of atmosphere revitalization and water treatment. Moreover, the plants will be used as a “winter garden” for psychological and recreational purposes. The water in the revitalization system has a multifunctional use, as radiation shielding in the safe-haven habitat core. The garden module creates an artificial outdoor environment mitigating the notion of confinement on the lunar surface. Fiber optics systems and plasma lamps are used for transmission of natural and artificial light into the interior.     

Analytical definition and proposed concept for the manned infrastructure of a lunar outpost

A recent study made by ESA has reviewed the scientific investigations to be only, or best, performed on the Moon (Return to the Moon, ESA SP-1150, June 1992), and has identified the need for a manned lunar outpost to provide support to field geologists in sampling and in-situ observations of the lunar surface, and to allow the refurbishments of surface stations and rovers. Planning and development for a manned outpost on the Moon requires an in-depth understanding and analysis of the functions this outpost is expected to perform. We therefore analyzed the impact of the proposed scientific investigations on the design of a manned lunar outpost. The specific questions raised in our study were: What are the medical, physiological and psychological risks for a crew to stay and to work on the Moon? What transit and lunar surface infrastructures (habitats and vehicles) are needed to minimize those risks?     

月面巡视探测器地面试验方法与技术综述

“嫦娥三号”任务的圆满完成标志着我国已经突破了软着陆、巡视勘察、月夜生存等一系列深空探测关键技术。由于任务目标以及月面环境的复杂性,对巡视器的地面试验验证工作提出了很高的要求。在研制过程中,不但开展了常规航天器必做的试验项目,还开展了大量的专项试验,充分的地面试验对确保任务的成功发挥了重要作用。文章对“嫦娥三号”巡视器的地面验证需求、验证试验要求、验证试验实施情况进行了分析和总结,主要包括低重力模拟、月表地形地貌模拟、工程模拟月壤的制备与整备、光照环境模拟、月尘模拟等方面,对深空探测器试验方法与技术的发展方向提出了建议。     

月面设施原位建造技术的研究进展

月面设施原位制造技术是未来航天科技发展的热点技术之一。以美、欧为代表的航天强国及组织均开展了月球原位制造技术的研究,研制了原位制造设备,并开展了相应的地面工艺验证工作,积累了有价值的试验数据和技术参数。在充分调研及跟踪国内外月面设施原位建造最新成果的基础上,系统分析国内外月面设施原位建造技术的发展思路,为我国月球基地的建造提供参考,对我国的载人登月、月球基地等月球探测任务的实施具有重要意义。     

The scientific case for renewed human activities on the Moon

It is over 30 years since the last human being stood on the lunar surface and this long hiatus in human exploration has been to the detriment of lunar and planetary science. The primary scientific importance of the Moon lies in the record it preserves of the early evolution of a terrestrial planet, and of the near-Earth cosmic environment in the first billion years or so of Solar System history. This record may not be preserved anywhere else; gaining proper access to it will require a human presence. Moreover, while this will primarily be a task for the geosciences, the astronomical and biological sciences would also benefit from a renewed human presence on the Moon, and especially from the establishment of a permanently occupied scientific outpost.     

Determination of the density and percentage of metal oxides in the lunar soil based on radar data

Results of laboratory measurements of the dielectric characteristics of lunar soil samples returned to the Earth by the Luna and Apollo missions have been analyzed. The feasibility of determining the density of the upper cover of the Moon from the permittivity, which is restored as a result of solving the inverse problem of radiolocation, has been discussed. A formula has been proposed for approximating the frequency dependence of the loss tangent for the regolith and bedrock. Relationships have been deduced for estimating the percentage of metal oxides in the lunar soil.     

Lunar astrobiology: a review and suggested laboratory equipment

In October of 2005, the European Space Agency (ESA) and Alcatel Alenia Spazio released a "call to academia for innovative concepts and technologies for lunar exploration." In recent years, interest in lunar exploration has increased in numerous space programs around the globe, and the purpose of our study, in response to the ESA call, was to draw on the expertise of researchers and university students to examine science questions and technologies that could support human astrobiology activity on the Moon. In this mini review, we discuss astrobiology science questions of importance for a human presence on the surface of the Moon and we provide a summary of key instrumentation requirements to support a lunar astrobiology laboratory.     

Materials refining on the Moon

Oxygen, metals, silicon, and glass are raw materials that will be required for long-term habitation and production of structural materials and solar arrays on the Moon. A process sequence is proposed for refining these materials from lunar regolith, consisting of separating the required materials from lunar rock with fluorine. The fluorine is brought to the Moon in the form of potassium fluoride, and is liberated from the salt by electrolysis in a eutectic salt melt. Tetrafluorosilane produced by this process is reduced to silicon by a plasma reduction stage; the fluorine salts are reduced to metals by reaction with metallic potassium. Fluorine is recovered from residual MgF and CaF₂ by reaction with K₂O.     

Lunar base development missions

On 20 July 1969, humankind first set foot on our Moon. Since then we have developed the Space Shuttle, explored most of the planets, cooperated in the development of the International Space Station, and expanded our knowledge of the universe through use of systems such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the Mars Pathfinder. After just five human follow-on missions to our Moon, we have returned robotically only twice to orbit, to map the surface and explore for resources.

The indication of the presence of hydrogen concentration at the poles of our Moon found by Lunar Prospector has added a new perspective for groups studying and implementing future lunar missions. Plans for nearterm missions such as the European Space Agency (ESA) “Euromoon 2000”, the Japanese Lunar A and Selene, and the Mitsubishi ”Earthrise 2001” Project, along with follow-on phases to the Lunar Prospector, are the beginning of humankind's return to the Moon. Organizations such as the International Academy of Astronautics have long championed the “Case for an International Lunar Base,” and a vision of a commercially-based lunar program has been outlined by several groups. A Lunar Economic Development Authority (LEDA) promoted by the United Society in Space was promulgated by the filing of articles of incorporation in the state of Colorado on 4 August 1997. This non-profit corporation has as its goal the orderly development of the Moon, through issuance of bonds to international private citizens and business entities who care to invest in its long-term development.

This paper draws from the works of the aforementioned, and specifically from the International Academy of Astronautics Lunar Base Committee, to structure a series of architectures leading toward eventual international commercial colonization of the lunar surface. While the prospect of fully reusable transportation systems utilizing fully developed lunar resources to perpetuate the permanent lunar infrastructure is enticing, this is a goal. We must utilize our current and near-term capabilities to re-initiate human lunar presence, and then build on emerging technologies to strengthen our capabilities. Humankind's return to the Moon is a part of our destiny. We can return in the near future, and then proceed to a commercial, permanent settlement in the 21st century.     

Rationale and systems architecture for a near-term human lunar return

Early human missions to the Moon have landed on six different sites on the lunar surface. These have all been in the low-latitude regions of the near side of the Moon. Early missions were designed primarily to assure crew safety rather than for scientific value. While the later missions added increasingly more challenging science, they remained restricted to near-side, low-latitude sites. Since the 1970s, we have learned considerably more about lunar planetology and resources. A return within the next five to ten years can greatly stimulate future human space exploration activities. We can learn much more about the distribution of lunar resources, especially about hydrogen, hydrated minerals, and water ice because they appear to be abundant near the lunar poles. The presence of hydrogen opens the possibility of industrial use of lunar resources to provide fuel for space transportation throughout the solar system.This paper discusses the rationale for near-term return of human crews to the Moon, and the advantages to be gained by selecting the Moon as the next target for human missions beyond low-Earth orbit. It describes a systems architecture for early missions, including transportation and habitation aspects. Specifically, we describe a primary transportation architecture that emphasizes existing Earth-to-orbit transportation systems, using expendable launch vehicles for cargo delivery and the Space Shuttle and its derivatives for human transportation. Transfer nodes should be located at the International Space Station (ISS) and at the Earth-Moon L1 (libration point).Each of the major systems is described, and the requisite technology readiness is assessed. These systems include Earth-to-orbit transportation, lunar transfer, lunar descent and landing, surface habitation and mobility, and return to Earth. With optimum reliance on currently existing space systems and a technology readiness assessment, we estimate the minimum development time required and perform order-of-magnitude cost estimates of a near-term human lunar mission.     

An inversion approach for lunar regolith layer thickness using optical albedo data and microwave emission simulation

An approach to inversion of the lunar regolith layer thickness by using multi-channel brightness temperature observation in passive microwave remote sensing is developed. To first make simulation of brightness temperature from the lunar layered media, the lunar regolith layer thickness (d) is proposed being constructed by available lunar DEM (digital elevation mapping) and on site measurements. The physical temperature distribution (T) over the lunar surface is also empirically assumed as a monotonic function of the latitude. Optical albedo of the lunar nearside from the telescopic observation is employed to construct the spatial distribution of the FeO+TiO₂ content (S) in the lunar regolith layer. A statistic relationship between the DEM and S of the lunar nearside is further extended to construction of S of the lunar farside. Thus, the dielectric permittivity (ε) of global lunar regolith layer can then be determined. Based on all these conditions (d,T,ε), brightness temperature of the lunar regolith layer in passive microwave remote sensing, which is planned for China's Chang-E lunar project, is numerically simulated by a parallel layering model using the strong fluctuation theory of random media.Then, taking these simulations with random noise as observations, an inversion method of the lunar regolith layer thickness is developed by using three- or two-channels brightness temperatures. When the S is low, and the four channels brightness temperatures in China's Chang-E project are well distinguishable, the regolith layer thickness and physical temperature of the underlying lunar rock media can be inverted by the three-channels approach. When the S becomes high that the brightness temperature at high frequency channels such as 19.35, 37 GHz are saturated, the regolith layer thickness is alternatively inverted only by the two-channels approach.Numerical simulation and inversion approach in this paper make an evaluation of the performance for lunar passive microwave remote sensing, and for future data calibration and validation.     

Beyond earth's boundaries: Human exploration of the Solar System

The USA has adopted the long-term goal of exploring the space frontier, including establishing human settlements beyond Earth orbit. This article describes four candidate missions for developing pathways into the Solar System which have been identified by NASA's Office of Exploration: human expeditions to Phobos and Mars, a lunar observatory and a lunar outpost to assist Mars explorations. The requirements placed upon near-term programmes by each of these missions are outlined and the elements necessary for a long-term implementation strategy are analysed.     

浅表层月壤铲挖采样的振动减阻技术仿真研究

文章对振动铲挖技术在浅表层月壤采样过程中的适用性进行了研究。根据月壤宏观、细观参数,采用离散元法建立了月壤模型,对月球表面低重力低气压环境下的月壤应力—应变特性进行仿真,并结合采用Balovnev机—土交互模型描述的月壤铲挖阻力公式,对月壤的振动减阻机理进行了分析。在此基础上,通过向采样器施加不同振幅和频率的振动,开展了浅表层月壤铲挖仿真,给出了铲挖过程中不同振动参数与月壤采样阻力的关系。同时,通过对比不同工况下的月壤孔隙率,验证了月壤的振动铲挖减阻机理及适用性。     

Introduction to Japanese exploration study to the moon

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) views the lunar lander SELENE-2 as the successor to the SELENE mission. In this presentation, the mission objectives of SELENE-2 are shown together with the present design status of the spacecraft. JAXA launched the Kaguya (SELENE) lunar orbiter in September 2007, and the spacecraft observed the Moon and a couple of small satellites using 15 instruments. As the next step in lunar exploration, the lunar lander SELENE-2 is being considered. SELENE-2 will land on the lunar surface and perform in-situ scientific observations, environmental investigations, and research for future lunar utilization including human activity. At the same time, it will demonstrate key technologies for lunar and planetary exploration such as precise and safe landing, surface mobility, and overnight survival. The lander will carry laser altimeters, image sensors, and landing radars for precise and safe landing. Landing legs and a precisely controlled propulsion system will also be developed. A rover is being designed to be able to travel over a wide area and observe featured terrain using scientific instruments. Since some of the instruments require long-term observation on the lunar surface, technology for night survival over more than 2 weeks needs to be considered. The SELENE-2 technologies are expected to be one of the stepping stones towards future Japanese human activities on the moon and to expand the possibilities for deep space science.     

面向载人月球探测的月面环境模拟试验关键技术分析

文章针对未来有人参与的月球探测任务,首先开展了月球表面环境地面模拟试验验证需求分析,归纳总结了国内外技术发展现状。然后,提出并分析了载人月球探测地面模拟试验需重点研究的关键技术:真空热环境下月面移动式多体低重力模拟技术;复杂月面环境高精度热流模拟技术;大容量布尘条件下超高真空获得与保持技术;月面辐射与月尘环境模拟技术;月尘防护效能量化评估技术;月面综合环境试验验证技术等。最后,给出了面向载人月球探测的月面环境模拟试验技术研究总体方案,并对月面环境模拟试验技术的发展目标进行了展望。     

嫦娥一号卫星的初步科学成果与嫦娥二号卫星的使命

嫦娥一号卫星于2007年10月24日在西昌卫星发射中心成功发射,2009年3月1日受控落月,在轨运行495d,一共取得了1.37Tbyte的原始科学探测数据,在此基础上生产出4Tbyte科学应用数据产品。通过对这些科学探测数据的初步分析和应用研究,已经获得了包括＂我国首次月球探测工程全月球影像图＂等在内的一系列科学成果,圆满实现了预期的各项科学目标,为推动我国月球与行星科学的研究和后续月球探测工程的开展奠定了重要基础。嫦娥二号卫星在嫦娥一号卫星取得圆满成功之后,进行了一系列技术改进,作为探月二期工程的先导星,将于今年年底前发射升空。嫦娥二号卫星从发射到第一次近月制动所经历的时间由13d缩短为5d,环月轨道高度由200km降低为100km,CCD相机的像元分辨率由120m提高到10m,激光高度计测量月面高程由1次/s提高到5次/s。嫦娥二号卫星将重点开展对月面着陆区地形地貌的精细探测,试验验证相关关键技术,为探月二期月面软着陆奠定科学和技术基础。     

Lunar precursor missions for human exploration of Mars--III: studies of system reliability and maintenance

Discussions of future human expeditions into the solar system generally focus on whether the next explorers ought to go to the Moon or to Mars. The only mission scenario developed in any detail within NASA is an expedition to Mars with a 500-day stay at the surface. The technological capabilities and the operational experience base required for such a mission do not now exist nor has any self-consistent program plan been proposed to acquire them. In particular, the lack of an Abort-to-Earth capability implies that critical mission systems must perform reliably for 3 years or must be maintainable and repairable by the crew. As has been previously argued, a well-planned program of human exploration of the Moon would provide a context within which to develop the appropriate technologies because a lunar expedition incorporates many of the operational elements of a Mars expedition. Initial lunar expeditions can be carried out at scales consistent with the current experience base but can be expanded in any or all operational phases to produce an experience base necessary to successfully and safely conduct human exploration of Mars.     

月球表面热环境数值分析

月球表面热环境的研究对探月活动有重要意义,本文用数值方法分析了月球表面的热环境.首先计算了不同纬度地区地表辐射平衡温度的周期波动,然后建立了月球地表土壤的一维非稳态热传导模型,用此模型计算了不同纬度地区地表温度的波动、月壤温度的波动及恒温层温度和深度,并讨论了月壤热物性对温度波动的影响.结果表明白天的地表温度主要取决于地表的辐射平衡温度,而夜晚的地表温度受到月壤热物性的影响.