The All-Electric Aircraft: A Systems View and Proposed NASA Research Programs

The previous papers have offered the distant vision of an all-electric aircraft?one which fully exploits the intrinsic features of electric power and electronic controls. This paper examines the path to that vision and the barriers along the way?some of which appear relatively easy to overcome while others are more formidable. It is interesting to conjecture what an all-electric aircraft will look like. The all-electric technologies may offer many design options and this paper suggests some tantalizing possibilities. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has sponsored or conducted a number of activities to foster the development of an all-electric airplane. The results of these activities are presented. Finally, in a look to the future, two NASA new initiatives are briefly discussed.     

Advanced Aircraft Electric System

The topics, advanced aircraft electric system and all-electric airplane, inspire a broad range of concepts from the evolutionary to the revolutionary. The revolutionary developments are exciting to the research and development community but find little encouragement or acceptance from airframe developers whose objective is to build an advanced technology airplane using only-off-the-shelf, proven equipment. Their anthem rings "We know how bad the ___________ is, but we have learned to live with it. We have only your vision of how good an advanced system will be and fear to chance it. "However, the cost of living with these known systems combined with the escalating cost of fuel and the military need to address advanced mission capability demands more than a patch called improved reliability and maintainability. The time is at hand to demonstrate an evolutionary approach to achieve a revolutionary improvement. This paper describes an advanced electric system, the life cycle cost improvement anticipated, and the evolutionary means to implementation.     

The All-Electric Fighter Airplane Flight Control Issues, Capabilities, and Projections

The prime issues raised in any all-electric airplane discussion are (1) is the electric power system as reliable and trustworthy as a hydraulic power system; (2) can electromechanical flight control actuators perform satisfactorily, i.e., can the performance match that of hydraulic actuators; (3) can redundant electromechanical actuation systems (EMAS) be designed to equal the flight safety reliability of dual tandem hydraulic actuators; and (4) can satisfactory solutions be found or developed for dissipating the heat generated in actuators and power controllers. The first question should be inconsequential since it is assumed that the all-electric aircraft will be equipped with a fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FCS) which is already dependent upon an uninterrupted supply of electrical power. Design studies and hardware already developed show that the answer to question (2) is that EMAS outperform hydraulic actuators, particularly under load. The answer to question (3) is not as clear primarily because the issue has not been addressed in any depth. As posed the answer must be yes, but with the proviso that the weight might be greater than currently predicted. Studies have shown that we can cope with the heat dissipation issue addressed in question (4) in the case of motors and inverter/power controllers. The projections regarding usage of EMAS and the future of the all-electric airplane must be based on the type of vehicle (small subsonic transport, large transport, or military tighter) and the economics involved.     

Electromechanical Actuation Technology for the All-Electric Aircraft

Electromechanical actuation is a critical element that must be developed and verified to make the all-electric aircraft a viable concept. For several years the Flight Control Division of the Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories has sponsored activities to demonstrate the credibility of electromechanical actuation systems (EMAS) for primary flight control actuation functions. The foundation for these EMAS activities and several electromechanical actuation development programs are described here. One involves the design, fabrication, and laboratory test of a rotary, hingeline electromechanical actuator. Another involves the development and flight test demonstration of a linear electromechanical actuator for controlling an aileron of a C-141 aircraft. A third involves the design and development of a linear electromechanical actuator for missiles having severe performance, temperature, and volumetric requirements. In addition, a brief summary of the results from two aircraft actuation trade studies compare the baseline (conventional) hydraulic flight control system with an all-electric airplane concept including quantitative comparisons of weight, reliability and maintainability, and life cycle costs.     

DIMA架构下飞机全电刹车系统故障传播行为分析与评估

在DIMA平台开放性体系架构的背景下,飞机航电与机电等系统功能逐渐渗透融合,面向DIMA架构的全电刹车系统是未来飞机刹车系统的主流设计趋势,但目前尚未形成针对DIMA架构下全电刹车系统的故障传播行为分析与评估方法。针对上述问题,首先结合DIMA架构特征和全电刹车相关标准,分析面向DIMA架构下的全电刹车系统分层架构,在此基础上构建全电刹车系统任务-功能-资源层次模型。其次,考虑到DIMA平台资源共享的特点,结合系统层次模型开展系统耦合关联分析,引入Floyd算法计算间接耦合矩阵以及路由矩阵,通过构造失效严重程度矩阵量化系统关联耦合度,建立系统故障传播结构模型,综合考虑故障路径传播概率和系统边缘介数,构建DIMA架构下全电刹车系统故障传播强度模型,以识别系统故障传播关键路径,完成故障传播行为分析与评估。最后通过实例分析,以验证所提方法的正确性与合理性。     

UAVs: the future. [A century of powered flight: 1903-2003]

Unmanned air vehicles (UAV) are assuming a prominent role in aviation and the future may have already arrived. Most of us have heard of the Global Hawk and Predator UAVs, which have been collecting real-time battlefield data without risking loss of life. However, the most amazing performance and avionics can be found in airplane-model-size MiniUAVs and insect-like MicroUAVs still on the drawing board. Meanwhile the all-electric NASA Helios "tower in the sky" is moving ever closer to reality.     

基于飞行参数数据挖掘的军机健康评估技术

以新型战机为代表的现代武器装备的参数数据越来越庞大,提出了基于飞行参数数据挖掘的军机健康评估技术。首先构建了军机健康评估设计及应用的"V"型架构,将数据获取、数据分析、方法应用、挖掘建模、评估结果和决策应用等流程融入到数据层、业务层、应用层等功能层级中。然后,综合运用改进故障树分析、高斯混合模型、层次分析法等方法,构建了适用于军机健康评估的架构、方法及流程。最后,以某军机实际飞行数据进行了应用分析,证明了所提方法的有效性和可行性。     

一种电动飞机概念方案的参数设计方法

为了准确地进行电动飞机概念方案的设计评估,从其自身特征出发,结合任务需求和不同飞行阶段的能耗分析,建立了全机总质量评估模块;为了完成方程的封闭和满足必要的飞行性能约束,建立了参数矩阵图模块;搭建的设计系统可以有效评估起飞总质量、翼载荷、功率载荷和翼展等总体参数。基于该系统,对国内外三款电动飞机进行设计和对比分析:不同机型下,程序所得的各项质量、翼面积、展长和翼载荷等均与实际数据相近;各项数据对比的绝对数值差异反映出对于任务的模拟和能耗在合理范围之内,且其相对误差对于初级设计阶段的总体参数评估而言,也是可以接受的。这些研究结果不仅验证了本文设计方法的正确性和可行性,还表明了该方法可为电动飞机初步的参数选定和性能评估提供重要的设计支撑。      

Moving towards a more electric aircraft

The latest advances in electric and electronic aircraft technologies from the point of view of an "all-electric" aircraft are presented herein. Specifically, we describe the concept of a "more electric aircraft" (MEA), which involves removing the need for on-engine hydraulic power generation and bleed air off-takes, and the increasing use of power electronics in the starter/generation system of the main engine. Removal of the engine hydraulic pumps requires fully-operative electrical power actuators and mastery of the flight control architecture. The paper presents a general overview of the electrical power generation system and electric drives for the MEA, with special regard to the flight controls. Some discussion regarding the interconnection of nodes and safety of buses and protocols in distributed systems is also presented     

运输类飞机结构设计安全系数的探讨

中国民用航空规章运输类飞机适航标准25.303要求采用1.5的安全系数,该要求同其他相关适航条款,例如25.307"结构符合性的证明"、25.603"材料"、25.605"制造方法"、25.613"材料的强度性能和材料的设计值"等,共同保证了飞机结构的高可靠性。理论上,当材料、载荷、分析等方面的不确定性降低,采用低于1.5的安全系数可以保证结构具有同等的高可靠性;另一方面,当材料、载荷、分析等方面的不确定性大于目前适航规章所允许的水平,通过采用大于1.5的安全系数也可以保证结构具有等同的高可靠性。为了在民用运输类飞机的适航取证/审定过程中,在保证结构可靠性的前提下,能够根据具体情况适当调整结构安全系数,在综合研究中国民用航空规章第25部《运输类飞机适航标准》相关条款内在联系的基础上,探讨了载荷、材料性能、分析方法等不确定性对飞机结构安全系数的贡献。研究结果表明,目前1.5的飞机结构安全系数,用于考虑载荷、材料性能、分析方法等不确定性的系数分量分别为1.2、1.12、1.116.     

运输类飞机舱内材料防火适航要求及符合性验证试验方法

在现代运输类飞机舱内,非金属材料的装饰和设备被大量使用。这些易燃材料是导致飞机火灾的重要原因之一,为了保障运输类飞机客舱安全,要求舱内材料防火。这也是当飞机发生坠撞事故后,为机上乘员逃离飞机争取时间的必要手段之一。通过研究和分析中国民用航空规章CCAR第25部中的适航条款要求,梳理出运输类飞机舱内不同非金属材料装饰和设备的防火适航要求,并为之提供具体的符合性验证试验方法,为运输类飞机舱内材料防火符合性验证工作规划和实施提供指导。     

螺旋桨飞机俯仰力矩特性改进方法

螺旋桨滑流对飞机各部件的气动干扰造成飞机的俯仰力矩特性恶化，危害飞行安全。开展螺旋桨滑流对螺旋桨飞机俯仰力矩特性的影响机理研究和螺旋桨滑流作用下螺旋桨飞机俯仰力矩特性改进方法研究十分重要。采用动态重叠多块结构网格，通过求解非定常雷诺平均可压缩Navier-Stokes方程，数值模拟了某螺旋桨飞机不同拉力系数下降落构型的绕流流场。结果显示螺旋桨滑流对机翼、平尾的气动干扰是导致飞机俯仰力矩特性恶化的主要原因，改进螺旋桨飞机俯仰力矩特性的关键是改进其平尾的升力特性。以拉力系数等于0.4时的降落构型为优化对象，开展了俯仰力矩特性的改进方法研究，包括降低平尾高度、改变平尾上反角、抬高螺旋桨轴线等方法。研究发现在不增大机翼对平尾整体下洗强度的前提下，减小平尾和螺旋桨轴线的垂向距离，可以明显地改善螺旋桨飞机的俯仰力矩特性。     

动力对全机水滴收集率的影响计算

针对飞机在飞行中遭遇过冷水滴撞击并结冰现象,建立了适合于发动机带动力情况下结冰过程水滴收集率计算的三维数值方法和计算程序.其基本思路为:采用多块技术与SIMPLE方法计算空气流场,以流场分布的计算结果为基础,求解水滴相的控制方程,进而获得物体表面的水滴收集率.空气相控制方程和水滴相控制方程均写成典型输运方程的形式,采用一致的有限体积法离散求解,方便了计算程序的编制.对某型运输机巡航构型有/无动力条件的水滴收集率进行了比较计算,获得了不同直径水滴在飞机表面的撞击特征以及水滴收集率在飞机机翼、平尾、垂尾和发动机进气道唇口上的分布规律.研究表明:(1)发动机是否带动力对机翼、平尾、垂尾的水滴收集率基本无影响;(2)飞机带动力主要影响发动机进气道唇口处的水滴收集率,带动力后唇口的收集率比无动力情况高,水滴撞击范围增大,在进行防除冰研究和设计时需引起重视.     

基于仿射变换的飞机图像的识别

 先基于细胞神经网络提取飞机图像轮廓,再用基于仿射变换方法对多种飞机的轮廓图像做不变特征的提取,把多种飞机的不变特征放在数据库中。进行飞机类型识别时先计算实时图像中飞机(目标) 的不变特征,然后与数据库中的每个不变特征做相关运算,即可识别飞机的型号。     

Flight Safety Issues of an All-Electric Aircraft

Flight safety issues of an all-electric aircraft include flight control system reliability, protection from electromagnetic interference and lightning, and protection from design errors (primarily in software) and handling qualities when failures occur if the all-electric aircraft does not have traditional aerodynamic stability. Some of these questions already have partial answers, but others remain open. The Federal Aviation Administration expects that discussions with experts in the aviation industry, the military services, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and foreign regulatory authorities for civil aircraft will be necessary to resolve these issues.     

飞机轮胎所造成的砂石飞溅数目的计算方法

 飞机在起飞和降落时,由于轮胎的影响所造成的跑道上外来物(FOD)飞溅是个复杂的过程。以砂石为例,介绍了几种典型的砂石飞溅的类型,提供了飞机所能遭遇到的砂石数目和造成飞机结构损伤的概率计算公式。以某型客机为例,根据民用机场的FOD调研报告和国内民用机场跑道的类型,分析了在临界能量下飞机所能遭遇到并能对飞机造成冲击破坏的可能性,为飞机结构抗冲击设计提供一定的依据。     

"Electric Airplane" Environmental Control Systems Energy Requirements

The "electric airplane" environmental control system (ECS) design drivers is discussed for an electric airplane from two aspects. The first aspect considered is the type of aircraft. The three examples selected are the 150-passenger commercial airline transport, the military on-station electronic-surveillance patrol aircraft, and the air-defense interceptor fighter. These vehicle examples illustrate the effect of both mission and mission profile on the design requirements of the ECS and the differences that the requirements make on the resulting advantages and disadvantages of electrification. For the commercial transport, the selection of the air source for ventilation will be featured. For the patrol aircraft, the cooling unit will be evaluated. For the fighter, emphasis will be placed on the need for systems integration. The second and more important consideration is the definition of the environmental control system requirements for both energy supply and heat sink thermal management integration from the power plant (engine) that make an electric ECS viable for each type of vehicle.     

联结翼飞机布局特点探讨

联结翼飞机是一种新型的飞机布局形式,具有与常规飞机不同的特点。文章从结构、气动、操纵控制的角度对联结翼布局飞机进行了分析。通过分析表明,联结翼飞机与常规飞机相比具有重量轻、强度刚度大、阻力低、较大的升力和直接力控制的优点。对联结翼飞机布局特点进行探讨可为今后新概念飞机设计提供参考。     

Y7—200A飞机模拟冰型飞行试验

以Ｙ７－２００Ａ型飞机为例,按照中国民用航空条例第２５部·运输类飞机适航标准（ＣＣＡＲ－２５）有关结冰条款进行了模拟冰型试飞,介绍了模拟冰型的几何形状,尺寸及确定方法,对模拟冰型试飞中有关的试飞内容,试飞方法及安全措施等进行了讨论,并对试验机带有与不带冰型的试验结果进行了分析比较,可供运输类飞机除冰系统的设计,验证试飞参考。     

机动飞机／发动机设计参数的一体化选择

发展了一种机动飞机／发动机设计参数的一体化选择方法和软件。根据机动飞机的飞行任务要求，确定设计目标和约束，其中包括飞机性能约束和发动机部件设计约束，并以此对飞机的主要设计参数和发动机循环参数进行一体化优选。该软件由飞机几何、飞机质量、飞机气动性能、发动机非安装和安装性能、发动机质量和外廓尺寸、飞机性能、优化等模块组成。此软件已应用于已有机动飞机／发动机的改型方案论证和未来高机动飞机／发动机方案的分析研究，本文给出部分计算实例。使用此软件的经验表明，计算结果合理，计算精度和所需时间适合于飞机／发动机系统方案论证和初步设计。