俄罗斯的空间军事能力:1992年～2001年

在过去的10年间,俄罗斯的各种军用卫星的发射率大幅度降低,甚至出现了没有照相侦察卫星在轨的特殊时期。俄罗斯是否由于财政状况,无法维持其军事空间能力呢?还是另有其他原因呢?文章列举了在1992～2001年间,俄罗斯的军用卫星发射情况,分析了其空间计划的前景。     

Perestroika and glasnost in the soviet space programme A personal view

For many years the world-famous Kettering Group of amateur satellite observers have confounded many more ‘official’ organization with their accucary in tracking Soviet space launches. In this article the group's founder, Geoffrey E. Perry, MBE, presents his personal perspective on current developments in the Soviet space programme. The USSR's increased openness about non-sensitive issues is to be welcomed, he concludes, but the Kettering Group has work to do yet.     

The Rockot launch system

EUROCKOT Launch Services GmbH has been founded by Daimler-Benz Aerospace of Germany and Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center of Russia to offer world-wide cost effective launch services on the Rockot launch system. The Rockot commercial program is described. Rockot can launch satellites weighing up to 1850 kg into polar and other low earth (LEO) orbits. The Rockot launch vehicle is based on the former Russian SS-19 strategic missile. The first and second stages are inherited from the SS-19, the third stage named Breeze is newly developed and has multiple ignition capability. The Rockot launch system is flight proven. In addition to the currently adapted Rockot launch site Plesetsk for high inclinations, EUROCKOT is in the process to also adapt the Baykonur cosmodrome as their complementary Rockot launch site for lower inclinations. The wide range of Rockot performance is provided. The first commercial launch is foreseen in the middle of 1999. The expected launch capacity for Plesetsk and Baykonur will exceed 10 launches per year. The complete Rockot system including performance is presented.     

Funding for space - private finance for public space missions?

Private users of space capability are used to buying a service, not a spacecraft. The supplier builds, launches and operates the spacecraft and the users only pay for the service that they receive. Publicly funded users could benefit from the same approach. Transferring responsibility for the success of the mission to a true prime contractor who is best able to manage technical and programme risks can lead to significant reductions in costs and timescales, but demands changes in attitudes by governments, users, industry and space agencies.     

Nuclear power supplies in orbit

There are four dozen potentially dangerous radioactive satellites orbiting the Earth today. Currently planned launches will vastly increase their number, resulting in over three metric tons of fuel and fission products in orbit by the year 2000. This article describes the nuclear power supply systems used by both the USA and the USSR, and the actual and potential hazards and accidents involved. The author suggests that a programme for retrieving the majority of nuclear supplies in space is both necessary and economically possible.     

Mission success regulations,their effect on ELV launch success and the applicability to regulating commercial human spaceflight

As the human spaceflight industry grows the agencies charged with regulating that industry meet significant challenges. An improvement in launch success would improve the safety for the crew and passengers of a commercial human spaceflight. With respect to ELV launches, NASA's regulations over civil launches are mission success oriented while commercial launches regulated by the FAA-AST, the agency that will also be charged with human spaceflight, takes a more public safety oriented stance. A comparison of the launch success between civil and commercial launches is used to inform the decision on whether or not mission success would be an appropriate regulatory stance for the FAA-AST. The results show that there is no significant difference in launch success between civil and commercial ELV launches. Because of this and because the industry is wary of over regulation, there is indication that a mission success oriented stance might not be appropriate for regulating commercial human spaceflight.     

Families of periodic solutions to Hamiltonian systems: Nonsymmetrical periodic solutions for a planar restricted three-body problem

A monodromy matrix calculated at a single arbitrary point of the periodic solution to a Hamiltonian system allows one to obtain both the direction of continuation for the family of solutions of the first (in Poincarés sense) kind and the multiplicity and direction of branching for periodic solutions of the second kind. In case of resonances 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 one needs to take into account the structure of elementary divisors of the monodromy matrix. Using the planar circular restricted three-body problem as an example, the infiniteness of the process of branching for a nonintegrable system and its finiteness for an integrable system are demonstrated. It is proved that periodic solutions of both first and second kinds which are obtained by continuation of symmetric periodic solutions of a restricted problem are also symmetric. The only exception is the case of resonance 1 : 1 and two second-order cells of the monodromy matrix in the Jordanian form. In this case, all periodic solutions of the second kind turned out to be nonsymmetrical. Examples of the families of nonsymmetrical periodic solutions are given.__________Translated from Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, Vol. 43, No. 2, 2005, pp. 88–110.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Kreisman.     

Suborbital and low-thermospheric experiments using sounding rockets in Taiwan

The suborbital flight is a kind of flight, which reaches the space and then comes back to ground without completing one orbital revolution. The atmospheric thermosphere extends from 85 km to 600 km in altitude. Therefore, the suborbital and low-thermospheric experiments to be performed at altitude below 300 km can be combined using the sounding rocket. These experiments include rocket staging, fairing separation, ultrasonic flight, reentry, aerobrake and recovery test, ultraviolet and ionization observations, ozone measurement, etc. The advent of Taiwan's sub-orbital and thermospheric experiments project can be traced back to 1997. This is the year Taiwan's National Space Organization (NSPO) was assigned to be responsible for procuring the sounding rocket for applications in science experiments and space technology research effort. From 1997 to 2010, 8 launches have been completed including one experimental hybrid rocket. All onboard instruments and sensors for sub-orbital and low-thermospheric experiments are developed and integrated by the domestic universities. More launches have been planned in the future. Opportunities for international cooperation in developing new instruments and payloads for future experiments will be possible.     

The new challenge for space in Russia

The space programme of the former USSR has been in disarray since the disintegration of the Soviet empire and it faces formidable economic and political problems. Attempts are being made, however, to formalize a programme for the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and a Russian space agency has been established. A senior Russian scientist here gives his personal view of the past, present and future of his country's space activities. He emphasizes the need to take advantage of new opportunities for cooperation, argues for the lifting of US restrictions on technology transfer and stresses the importance of space technology in monitoring environmental problems. This should remain a top priority.     

The Soviet manned lunar programme and its legacy

In the last two years the USSR has not only acknowledged publicly for the first time that it was trying to ‘race’ the USA to put the first man on the Moon, but they have finally given some details of the programme, the equipment and the political in-fighting which ensured that the programme was a failure. This article traces the history of the Soviet manned lunar programme and also discusses the implications for the future development of the Soviet manned programme of the giant N-1 booster's cancellation in 1974.     

Psycho-social training for man in space.

In preparation for the international manned space station various international and national space agencies are already participating with the Russian MIR programme with short, medium, and long term presence on the MIR station. Although selection criteria for all crew include careful psychological screening, with some effort also regarding team build-up, this has proved insufficient; moreover. little or no effort is expended in the area of psycho-social- or team training. This paper propounds the authors' thesis that, in addition to the steps already being taken, psycho-social training is essential for long-duration flight. A concrete proposal is made for such a training program, with an overview of how such a program will look like; examples of past applications are given.     

Magneto-ionospheric effects of active experiments conducted on February 18, 2004

Results of radiophysical and magnetometric observations of dynamical processes in the ionosphere and geomagnetic field that followed launches of four rockets of different power and made from different launching sites are analyzed. It is found that the rocket launches were accompanied by an intensification of wave activity in the ionosphere and geomagnetic field. The medium reactions from various sources (various rockets) were overlapping, which made their identification more difficult. Both ionospheric and geomagnetic disturbances have, most probably, two groups of propagation velocities: about 1.2–1.7 km s⁻¹ and 440–760 m s⁻¹. Slow MHD waves and internal gravity waves corresponded to these velocities.     

Russian space programmes and industry: Defining the new institutions for new conditions

The aim of this article is to define the major elements of the institutional design process for the Russian rocket and space industry, a process which must take account of the changed economic conditions in the country and provide for the industry's integration into the wider national economy. The article does this by demonstrating the features that need to be understood, highlighting the problems that need to be resolved, and arguing that an institutional design process will have to be based on compromise and accommodation of all the different actors involved. The article deals with a number of particular problems challenging the managers and methodologists of the Russian national space programme of today.     

National paper of the Russian Federation

Despite its straightened circumstances and doubts about how much political support it receives, Russia's space programme continues — and continues to plan for new activities and applications. This edited version of the National Paper of the Russian Federation, presented at Unispace III in July 1999, details some of the country's major achievements in space in recent years and sets out the main areas it intends to pursue for the early twentieth-first century. While emphasis is placed on communications, remote sensing, navigation and space science, the commitment to manned flight remains.     

A brief history of Baikonur

The Baikonur launch site was the world's first and remains its most important in terms of the historic missions that have taken off from it. This article describes the background to the construction of Baikonur, the steps taken to keep it secret from the West, and its chief facilities. It enumerates the major space missions that took place there, as well as acknowledging its failures, e.g. the lunar programmes, before speculating on its future. An increasing emphasis on commercial launches seems likely.     

Shock–Acoustic Waves Generated during Rocket Launches and Earthquakes

Shock–acoustic waves generated during rocket launches and earthquakes are investigated by a method developed earlier for processing data from a global network of receivers of the GPS navigation system. Disturbances of the total electron content in the ionosphere accompanying the launches of the Proton, Soyuz, and Space Shuttle space vehicles from the Baikonur cosmodrome and Kennedy Space Center launch site in 1998–2000, as well as the earthquakes in Turkey on August 17 and November 12, 1999, were analyzed. It was shown that, regardless of the source type, the impulsive disturbance has the character of an N-wave with a period of 200–360 s and an amplitude exceeding background fluctuations under moderate geomagnetic conditions by a factor of 2–5 as a minimum. The elevation angle of the disturbance wave vector varies from 25° to 65°, and the phase velocity (900–1200 m/s) approaches the speed of sound at heights of the ionospheric F-region maximum. The source location corresponds to a segment of the booster trajectories at a distance of no less than 500–1000 km from the start position and to a flight altitude of no less than 100 km. In the case of earthquakes the source location approximately coincides with the epicenter.     

The astronaut and the robot : Short- and long-term scenarios for space technology

A series of major accidents - the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger, the destruction of Titan and Delta launchers, and failures of the Ariane rocket series - has led to a reexamination of Western space programmes. In the short term, all satellite launches have been delayed. This is not an insurmountable obstacle, although it will inevitably delay the first space-based tests of SDI hardware. The author outlines the growing gap between the immediate needs of organizations which launch satellites and the more uncertain ambitions of the ‘conquerors’ of space. The former are now bearing the costs of the latter, who are aiming at manned space flights and a human presence in space. In the longer term, these objectives have justifications other than simple industrial and commercial logic. The author suggests that an attempt should be made to reconcile immediate military and industrial needs with the human desire to overcome the ‘Icarus complex’ in the long-term future.     

EVA 2000: a European/Russian space suit concept

For the European manned space activities an EVA space suit system was being developed in the frame of the Hermes Space Vehicle Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). The space suit was to serve the needs for all relevant extravehicular activities for the Hermes Columbus operations planned to begin in 2004. For the present Russian manned space programme the relevant EVAs are performed by the Orlan-DMA semi-rigid space suit. The origin of its development reaches back to the 1970s and has since been adapted to cover the needs for extravehicular activities on Salyut and MIR until today. The latest modification of the space suit, which guaranteed its completely self-contained operation, was made in 1988. However, Russian specialists considered it necessary to start developing an EVA space suit of a new generation, which would have improved performance and would cover the needs by the turn of the century and into the beginning of the next century. Potentially these two suit developments could have a lot in common based on similarities in present concepts. As future manned space activities become more and more an international effort, a safe and reliable interoperability of the different space suit systems is required. Based on the results of the Munich Minister Conference in 1991, the European Space Agency and the Russian Space Agency agreed to initiate a requirements analysis and conceptual design study to determine the feasibility of a joint space suit development, EVA 2000. The design philosophy for the EVA 2000 study was oriented on a space suit system design of: space suit commonality and interoperability; increased crew productivity and safety; increase in useful life and reduced maintainability; reduced development and production cost. The EVA 2000 feasibility study was performed in 1992, and with the positive conclusions for EVA 2000, this approach became the new joint European Russian EVA Suit 2000 Development Programme. This paper gives an overview of the results of the feasibility study and presents the joint requirements and the proposed design concept of a jointly developed European Russian space suit.     

Training astronauts using three-dimensional visualisations of the International Space Station

Recent advances in personal computer technology have led to the development of relatively low-cost software to generate high-resolution three-dimensional images. The capability both to rotate and zoom in on these images superposed on appropriate background images enables high-quality movies to be created. These developments have been used to produce realistic simulations of the International Space Station on CD-ROM. This product is described and its potentialities demonstrated. With successive launches, the ISS is gradually built up, and visualised over a rotating Earth against the star background. It is anticipated that this product's capability will be useful when training astronauts to carry out EVAs around the ISS. Simulations inside the ISS are also very realistic. These should prove invaluable when familiarising the ISS crew with their future workplace and home. Operating procedures can be taught and perfected. "What if" scenario models can be explored and this facility should be useful when training the crew to deal with emergency situations which might arise. This CD-ROM product will also be used to make the general public more aware of, and hence enthusiastic about, the International Space Station programme.     

Geomagnetic effect of launches and flights of large spacecraft

The results of observations of variations in the geomagnetic field that accompanied launches and flights of rockets of different types have been analyzed. The launches were performed in 2002–2010 from different space launch facilities of the world (237 events in total), and variations in the range of periods 1–1000 s were studied. Measurements were performed near the city of Kharkov (distance from the spaceports ranges from 1500 to 9500 km). Statistical analysis and spectral estimations have been made, and three groups of disturbances were revealed. Time delays and disturbance durations increased with increasing distance from spaceports. Typical periods were equal to 6 to 14 min, while amplitudes varied in the range 1–3 nT.