Flapping and flexible wings for biological and micro air vehicles

Micro air vehicles (MAVs) with wing spans of 15 cm or less, and flight speed of 30–60 kph are of interest for military and civilian applications. There are two prominent features of MAV flight: (i) low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵), resulting in unfavorable aerodynamic conditions to support controlled flight, and (ii) small physical dimensions, resulting in certain favorable scaling characteristics including structural strength, reduced stall speed, and low inertia. Based on observations of biological flight vehicles, it appears that wing motion and flexible airfoils are two key attributes for flight at low Reynolds number. The small size of MAVs corresponds in nature to small birds, which do not glide like large birds, but instead flap with considerable change of wing shape during a single flapping cycle. With flapping and flexible wings, birds overcome the deteriorating aerodynamic performance under steady flow conditions by employing unsteady mechanisms. In this article, we review both biological and aeronautical literatures to present salient features relevant to MAVs. We first summarize scaling laws of biological and micro air vehicles involving wing span, wing loading, vehicle mass, cruising speed, flapping frequency, and power. Next we discuss kinematics of flapping wings and aerodynamic models for analyzing lift, drag and power. Then we present issues related to low Reynolds number flows and airfoil shape selection. Recent work on flexible structures capable of adjusting the airfoil shape in response to freestream variations is also discussed.     

水翼型水上飞机偏转机翼布局数值研究

针对水上飞机水面起飞过程阻力峰值较大,提出一种可偏转机翼水翼型水上飞机,飞机水面滑行时偏转机翼割划水面产生水动升力将飞机抬离水面,空中飞行时偏转机翼根据飞行条件可偏转角度。采用空气动力和水动力耦合求解并结合动力学平衡方程方法分析了该布局水动特性并进行空中巡航气动特性分析,同时计算同尺寸双浮筒型水上飞机,比较两种构型水动与气动特性。数值计算结果表明,水面起飞过程中双浮筒型水上飞机总阻力峰值约为水翼型水上飞机偏转机翼布局的1.97倍;飞机空中飞行时,偏转机翼偏转角为0°时气动性能最优且所受阻力低于双浮筒型水上飞机,从而证明了水翼型水上飞机偏转机翼布局能够有效提高水上飞机的水动与气动性能。     

Prediction of aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft model with and without winglet using fuzzy logic technique

This paper describes the potentials of an aircraft model without and with winglet attached with NACA wing No. 65-3-218. Based on the longitudinal aerodynamic characteristics analyzing for the aircraft model tested in low subsonic wind tunnel, the lift coefficient (CL) and drag coefficient (CD) were investigated respectively. Wind tunnel test results were obtained for CL and CD versus the angle of attack α for three Reynolds numbers Re (1.7×¹⁰⁵, 2.1×¹⁰⁵, and 2.5×¹⁰⁵) and three configurations (configuration 1: without winglet, configuration 2: winglet at 0° and configuration 3: winglet at 60°). Compared with conventional technique, fuzzy logic technique is more efficient for the representation, manipulation and utilization. Therefore, the primary purpose of this work was to investigate the relationship between lift coefficients and drag coefficients with free-stream velocities and angle of attacks, and to illustrate how fuzzy expert system (FES) might play an important role in prediction of aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft model with the addition of winglet. In this paper, an FES model was developed to predict the lift and drag coefficients of the aircraft model with winglet at 60°. The mean relative error of measured and predicted values (from FES model) were 6.52% for lift coefficient and 4.74% for drag coefficient. For all parameters, the relative error of predicted values was found to be less than the acceptable limits (10%). The goodness of fit of prediction (from FES model) values were found as 0.94 for lift coefficient and 0.98 for drag coefficient which were close to 1.0 as expected.     

Nonlinear dynamics of a flapping rotary wing: Modeling and optimal wing kinematic analysis

The analysis of the passive rotation feature of a micro Flapping Rotary Wing(FRW)applicable for Micro Air Vehicle(MAV) design is presented in this paper. The dynamics of the wing and its influence on aerodynamic performance of FRW is studied at low Reynolds number(~10~3).The FRW is modeled as a simplified system of three rigid bodies: a rotary base with two flapping wings. The multibody dynamic theory is employed to derive the motion equations for FRW. A quasi-steady aerodynamic model is utilized for the calculation of the aerodynamic forces and moments. The dynamic motion process and the effects of the kinematics of wings on the dynamic rotational equilibrium of FWR and the aerodynamic performances are studied. The results show that the passive rotation motion of the wings is a continuous dynamic process which converges into an equilibrium rotary velocity due to the interaction between aerodynamic thrust, drag force and wing inertia. This causes a unique dynamic time-lag phenomena of lift generation for FRW, unlike the normal flapping wing flight vehicle driven by its own motor to actively rotate its wings. The analysis also shows that in order to acquire a high positive lift generation with high power efficiency and small dynamic time-lag, a relative high mid-up stroke angle within 7–15° and low mid-down stroke angle within -40° to -35° are necessary. The results provide a quantified guidance for design option of FRW together with the optimal kinematics of motion according to flight performance requirement.     

亚声速翼身融合无人机概念外形参数优化

为了兼顾翼身融合（BWB）布局无人机（UAV）的气动、隐身和结构重量要求,应用优化方法研究了某亚声速翼身融合无人机概念方案的外形设计问题。外形优化设计流程包括全机参数化几何外形模型、气动分析、机翼根部弯矩计算、雷达散射截面（RCS）分析、代理模型的建立和外形参数优化计算。选择了三种不同优化目标研究翼身融合无人机外形优化问题：①未配平状态升阻比最大;②配平状态升阻比最大;③配平状态升阻比尽量大和机翼弯矩尽量小。通过优化结果的对比分析,揭示了配平约束和机翼弯矩目标对优化设计结果的影响。研究结果表明：计入配平约束能够有效提高配平升阻比;将配平状态升阻比尽量大和机翼根部弯矩尽量小作为优化目标能够获得合理的优化外形。     

小展弦比机翼加装格尼襟翼的低雷诺数试验

通过风洞试验研究了在低雷诺数下加装格尼襟翼的小展弦比机翼气动特性,机翼展弦比为1.67,格尼襟翼为1%~4%弦长高度,试验雷诺数分别为2.0×105和5.0×105.天平测力和表面测压的试验结果表明:低雷诺数下小展弦比机翼加装一定高度的格尼襟翼后,升力系数明显提高,加装1%弦长高度的格尼襟翼还能够提高机翼的升阻比.这是因为在试验雷诺数下,合适高度的襟翼在提高了机翼升力的同时并未显著增大机翼阻力.对比不同试验雷诺数下格尼襟翼的作用效果,表明格尼襟翼能够减少低雷诺数气流分离的不利影响,并且在较小的雷诺数下这种作用更加显著.关于格尼襟翼对低雷诺数层流分离现象的影响,还需要通过细致的流场显示技术进行研究.      

Recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity

Micro air vehicles (MAVs) have the potential to revolutionize our sensing and information gathering capabilities in areas such as environmental monitoring and homeland security. Flapping wings with suitable wing kinematics, wing shapes, and flexible structures can enhance lift as well as thrust by exploiting large-scale vortical flow structures under various conditions. However, the scaling invariance of both fluid dynamics and structural dynamics as the size changes is fundamentally difficult. The focus of this review is to assess the recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity. It is realized that a variation of the Reynolds number (wing sizing, flapping frequency, etc.) leads to a change in the leading edge vortex (LEV) and spanwise flow structures, which impacts the aerodynamic force generation. While in classical stationary wing theory, the tip vortices (TiVs) are seen as wasted energy, in flapping flight, they can interact with the LEV to enhance lift without increasing the power requirements. Surrogate modeling techniques can assess the aerodynamic outcomes between two- and three-dimensional wing. The combined effect of the TiVs, the LEV, and jet can improve the aerodynamics of a flapping wing. Regarding aeroelasticity, chordwise flexibility in the forward flight can substantially adjust the projected area normal to the flight trajectory via shape deformation, hence redistributing thrust and lift. Spanwise flexibility in the forward flight creates shape deformation from the wing root to the wing tip resulting in varied phase shift and effective angle of attack distribution along the wing span. Numerous open issues in flapping wing aerodynamics are highlighted.     

弹性变形对前掠翼气动特性的影响分析

针对弹性变形对前掠翼气动特性的影响,基于改进的CFD/CSD松耦合静气动弹性数值计算方法,在高亚声速条件下,对前掠角χ=10°,20°,30°的前掠翼纵向气动特性和副翼操纵效率进行了计算和分析。结果表明,迎角较小时,弹性翼的升力、升阻比和俯仰力矩较刚性翼大,大迎角时恰恰相反;随着前掠角的增加,机翼的弯扭变形和气动参数变化的程度愈加剧烈;在最大升阻比、迎角α=4°、副翼偏转角δ=20°时,弹性翼的副翼操纵效率略大于刚性翼。该研究可为前掠翼布局的设计提供借鉴。     

Aircraft with outboard horizontal stabilizers,history, current status,development potential

The potential of using outboard horizontal stabilizers (OHS) to reduce aircraft drag, and hence improve fuel economy, was investigated historically, experimentally and theoretically. The feasibility of OHS configurations on the basis of the structural stress levels expected was also studied. The findings of the work showed that from simple, low Reynolds number, wind-tunnel tests, at a wing-chord-based Reynolds number of approximately 6×10⁴ and also from theoretical analyses for a higher Reynolds number of 9×10⁶, lift/drag (L/D) value increases in the region of 40–50% for wing and tail surfaces can be expected relative to corresponding values for conventional aircraft. When account is taken of fuselage and tail-support boom drag, the expected overall L/D increase is in the region of 30–35%. The analytical stress-level work showed that contrary to what, on a first thought basis, might be expected, there were no major stress problems. Flight tests at the University of Calgary, and by others elsewhere, employing radio-controlled, powered, model aircraft (i.e. UAVs) showed that aircraft of the OHS type were easily controlled in flight and were stable. An examination was made of additional areas that may contribute yet further to the development of the OHS concept.     

小型昆虫“合拢-打开”运动机制的增升机理数值研究

通过动态混合网格技术和基于虚拟压缩方法的不可压缩流非定常计算方法,对"合拢-打开"(clap-fling)机制下小型昆虫翼的周期性运动进行了数值模拟,并与单个翼拍动时的升力系数、流场结构进行了对比分析,同时对比研究了雷诺数对力学特性、流场结构的影响,探讨了"clap-fling"机制能够增强升力的流动机理.对比发现,"clap-fling"机制增升的关键在于合拢-打开过程中的三个升力峰值以及之后平动阶段的"不失速机制";且当雷诺数较小时,"clap-fling"机制增升效果最为明显.     

民用客机可变弯度机翼优化设计研究

远程宽体客机在实际飞行状态下,机翼变弯度有效减阻能够提升客机性能和飞行品质。以全机配平构型为研究对象,基于襟翼、扰流板偏转建立变弯度模型;采用 RANS 方程实现阻力的精确求解并建立响应面模型,对不同升力系数、马赫数的多个飞行状态进行变弯度减阻优化;在此基础上,对实际飞行过程中变弯度操作需求及综合减阻性能进行分析,并采...     

民用飞机ADHF构型升阻特性研究

采用计算流体力学方法,针对伴随扰流板下偏铰链襟翼典型二维多段翼进行数值模拟,研究了扰流板下偏对小襟翼起飞构型多段翼气动升阻特性的影响。结果表明:在所研究范围内,1)固定扰流板偏度及缝道,增大襟翼偏度,可明显提升多段翼升力,并增加1.13V_SR-1.25V_SR升力范围内的阻力;2)固定襟翼位置,增加扰流板偏度,可产生机翼弯度增大与缝隙量减小两个效果;3)机翼弯度增大,可提升多段翼小迎角下的升力,但最大升力影响有限,弯度增加效应可明显降低1.13V_SR ~1.25V_SR升力范围内的阻力;4)在0.3%c~1.3%c范围内,减小缝隙量,各迎角下升力均随之下降,但减小缝隙量也可明显降低1.13V_SR~1.25V_SR升力范围内的阻力;5)固定襟翼,随着扰流板下偏,升力在小迎角下有所提升,进失速段呈现下降现象,而阻力在1.13V_SR~1.25V_SR升力范围内可明显降低。     

可差动扭转扑翼飞行器的设计和风洞试验研究

常规的仿鸟扑翼飞行器在飞行时机翼只是单纯地上下扑动。为提高扑翼飞行器横航向和航迹控制的品质,设计了一种机翼在扑动的同时可差动扭转的仿鸟扑翼飞行器;在低速风洞中对其进行了一系列测力试验,研究了可差动扭转扑翼飞行器的升力、推力特性,以及机翼差动扭转角、扑动频率、风速、机翼柔性对滚转力矩系数的影响;对设计的扑翼飞行器做了飞行试验,验证了设计的可行性,并与常规扑翼飞行器作了对比,试验结果表明：可差动扭转扑翼可以用于扑翼飞行器的横向控制,并且可以提高其抗风能力和航迹控制精度。     

高频扑动微扑翼飞行器多目标优化设计

微扑翼飞行器高频扑动时机翼与机身最大载荷急剧增加,严重影响飞行性能和飞行寿命。分析微扑翼扑动过程中机翼运动情况及受力情况,建立扑动过程中机翼升力、阻力和惯性力数学模型,提出以改善载荷在时间域上分布情况为目标的多目标优化模型,并且在Matlab环境下采用NSGA-Ⅱ算法进行求解,得到悬停状态下的Pareto最优解集。结果表明:提出的优化模型使升力峰值与惯性力峰值显著降低,载荷分布情况得到明显改善。     

带升力风扇飞翼布局开口机翼气动特性研究

为获得带升力风扇飞翼布局飞机因开口对机翼气动特性的影响规律,对平飞状态下开口机翼的气动特性进行三维气动仿真,分析升力系数、阻力系数和力矩系数随来流速度和迎角变化的特性.结果表明:随着来流速度增大,阻力和力矩呈上升趋势;来流速度一定时,随着迎角加大,升力系数增大,阻力系数先减小后增大;随着迎角增大,力矩系数先减小后增大再减小,且一直产生低头力矩.     

褶皱结构对蜻蜓后翅的气动特性影响分析

褶皱结构是否能对蜻蜓后翅气动性能产生正面的影响,对蜻蜓后翅气动性能的影响是否与雷诺数(Re)相关。建立接近真实蜻蜓后翅的三维蜻蜓后翅褶皱模型和拥有同样外形的三维平板模型,利用计算流体力学方法分别计算两个模型在不同Re、不同攻角(α)下滑翔飞行时的气动特性。结果表明:褶皱结构的存在会明显提高蜻蜓后翅的升力,但是同时也会增大其阻力;不同Re情况下,褶皱结构对蜻蜓后翅气动性能的影响不同,当Re=1 000,α=0°～25°时,蜻蜓后翅的气动效能始终略优于三维平板;褶皱结构对蜻蜓后翅气动特性的影响与α也相关,α较大时蜻蜓后翅的气动效能略优于三维平板。     

倾转旋翼机飞行力学特性

总结和分析了旋翼、机翼、机身、短舱和尾翼气动力模型和操纵机构特点,其中旋翼气动力模型以准定常叶素理论为基础,机翼和尾翼气动力模型以升力线理论为基础,并分析了旋翼尾流对机翼气动力气动干扰问题;建立了全量非线性倾转旋翼机飞行力学模型;以XV-15为样机,对倾转旋翼机在不同飞行模式和飞行速度下飞行力学特性展开了详细研究,得到的结论有助于深入了解倾转旋翼机飞行力学特性,也可用于倾转旋翼机飞行控制系统设计.      

Effects of coarse riblets on air flow structures over a slender delta wing using particle image velocimetry

This research investigates the aerodynamic performance and flow characteristics of a delta wing with 65° sweep angle and with coarse axial riblets,and then compares with that of a smooth-surface delta wing.Particle Image Velocimetry(PIV)were utilized to visualize the flow over the wing at 6 cross-sections upright to the wing surface and parallel to the wing span,as well as 3 longitudinal sections on the leading edge,symmetry plane,and a plane between them at Angles of Attack(AOA)=20°and 30°and Re=1.2×10~5,2.4×10~5,and 3.6×10~5.The effects of the riblets were studied on the vortices diameter,vortex breakdown location,vortices distance from the wing surface,flow lines pattern nearby the wing,circulation distribution,and separation.The results show that the textured model has a positive effect on some of the parameters related to drag reduction and lift increase.The riblets increase the flow momentum near the wing’s upper surface except near the apex.They also increase the flow momentum behind the wing.     

Effective control allocation using hierarchical multi-objective optimization for multi-phase flight

For different flight phases in an overall flight mission, different control and allocation preferences should be pursued considering lift, drag or maneuverability characteristics. The multi-objective flight control allocation problem for a multi-phase flight mission is studied. For an overall flight mission, different flight phases namely climbing, cruise, maneuver and gliding phases are defined. Firstly, a multi-objective control allocation problem considering drag, lift or control energy preference is constructed. Secondly, considering different control preferences at different flight phases, the analytic hierarchical process method is used to construct a comprehensive performance index from different objectives such as lift or drag preferences. The active set based dynamic programming optimization method is used to solve the real-time optimization problem. For the validation, the Innovative Control Effector (ICE) tailless aircraft nonlinear model and the angular acceleration measurements based adaptive Incremental Backstepping (IBKS) are used to construct the validation platform. Finally, an overall flight mission is simulated to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed multi-phase and multi-objective flight control allocation method. The results show that the comprehensive performance index for different phases, which are determined from the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method, can suitably satisfy the preference requirements for different flight phases.     

Study on the lift and propulsive force shares to improve the flight performance of a compound helicopter

To investigate the effects of lift and propulsive force shares on flight performance, a compound helicopter model is derived. The model consists of a helicopter model, a wing model and a propeller model. At a low speed of 100 km/h, the Lift-to-Drag ratio(L/D) of the compound helicopter is improved when the wing provides 20.2% of the take-off weight. At high speeds, the L/D can be improved when the propeller provides the total propulsive force. Lowering the main rotor speed increases the wing lif...