Analytical definition and proposed concept for the manned infrastructure of a lunar outpost

A recent study made by ESA has reviewed the scientific investigations to be only, or best, performed on the Moon (Return to the Moon, ESA SP-1150, June 1992), and has identified the need for a manned lunar outpost to provide support to field geologists in sampling and in-situ observations of the lunar surface, and to allow the refurbishments of surface stations and rovers. Planning and development for a manned outpost on the Moon requires an in-depth understanding and analysis of the functions this outpost is expected to perform. We therefore analyzed the impact of the proposed scientific investigations on the design of a manned lunar outpost. The specific questions raised in our study were: What are the medical, physiological and psychological risks for a crew to stay and to work on the Moon? What transit and lunar surface infrastructures (habitats and vehicles) are needed to minimize those risks?     

Introduction to Japanese exploration study to the moon

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) views the lunar lander SELENE-2 as the successor to the SELENE mission. In this presentation, the mission objectives of SELENE-2 are shown together with the present design status of the spacecraft. JAXA launched the Kaguya (SELENE) lunar orbiter in September 2007, and the spacecraft observed the Moon and a couple of small satellites using 15 instruments. As the next step in lunar exploration, the lunar lander SELENE-2 is being considered. SELENE-2 will land on the lunar surface and perform in-situ scientific observations, environmental investigations, and research for future lunar utilization including human activity. At the same time, it will demonstrate key technologies for lunar and planetary exploration such as precise and safe landing, surface mobility, and overnight survival. The lander will carry laser altimeters, image sensors, and landing radars for precise and safe landing. Landing legs and a precisely controlled propulsion system will also be developed. A rover is being designed to be able to travel over a wide area and observe featured terrain using scientific instruments. Since some of the instruments require long-term observation on the lunar surface, technology for night survival over more than 2 weeks needs to be considered. The SELENE-2 technologies are expected to be one of the stepping stones towards future Japanese human activities on the moon and to expand the possibilities for deep space science.     

Rationale and systems architecture for a near-term human lunar return

Early human missions to the Moon have landed on six different sites on the lunar surface. These have all been in the low-latitude regions of the near side of the Moon. Early missions were designed primarily to assure crew safety rather than for scientific value. While the later missions added increasingly more challenging science, they remained restricted to near-side, low-latitude sites. Since the 1970s, we have learned considerably more about lunar planetology and resources. A return within the next five to ten years can greatly stimulate future human space exploration activities. We can learn much more about the distribution of lunar resources, especially about hydrogen, hydrated minerals, and water ice because they appear to be abundant near the lunar poles. The presence of hydrogen opens the possibility of industrial use of lunar resources to provide fuel for space transportation throughout the solar system.This paper discusses the rationale for near-term return of human crews to the Moon, and the advantages to be gained by selecting the Moon as the next target for human missions beyond low-Earth orbit. It describes a systems architecture for early missions, including transportation and habitation aspects. Specifically, we describe a primary transportation architecture that emphasizes existing Earth-to-orbit transportation systems, using expendable launch vehicles for cargo delivery and the Space Shuttle and its derivatives for human transportation. Transfer nodes should be located at the International Space Station (ISS) and at the Earth-Moon L1 (libration point).Each of the major systems is described, and the requisite technology readiness is assessed. These systems include Earth-to-orbit transportation, lunar transfer, lunar descent and landing, surface habitation and mobility, and return to Earth. With optimum reliance on currently existing space systems and a technology readiness assessment, we estimate the minimum development time required and perform order-of-magnitude cost estimates of a near-term human lunar mission.     

What next for China in space after Shenzhou?

This article discusses China's ambitions in space now that it seems set to pursue human spaceflight. It suggests that, after sending its astronauts into space, completing orbital rendezvous-docking operations and placing a space lab in orbit, China will focus on the Moon with its Chang’e project. As an emerging space power, China will play a more active role in the international space community through collaboration in areas such as lunar exploration, science operations on the International Space Station, the Galileo Global Navigation Satellite System and the International Geosphere–Biosphere Program (IGBP). In particular, China will vigorously explore new opportunities to expand its cooperation with Russia and ESA to counteract Washington's attempt at containment. Meanwhile, Beijing will continue to follow its self-reliance principle to go its own way in space.     

Public–private models for lunar development and commerce

Visions about the establishment of a lunar base and development of the Moon for scientific, technical and commercial ends have been on the political agenda since the beginning of the Space Age. In the past few years a number of spacefaring nations, including the USA, European states through ESA, Japan, India, China and Russia have proposed missions directed at the robotic and human exploration and development of the Moon. This paper argues that an important factor in advancing these missions lies in a partnership between the pubic, governmental sector and the private sector. The paper analyzes the dynamics of this partnership as applied to the case of the US Vision for Space Exploration. The results of the analysis suggest that public–private partnerships directed at lunar development and commerce depend on how government reduces risks for the private sector. The risks identified and discussed herein include political and legal risks, technological risks, and financial and market risks.     

The scientific case for renewed human activities on the Moon

It is over 30 years since the last human being stood on the lunar surface and this long hiatus in human exploration has been to the detriment of lunar and planetary science. The primary scientific importance of the Moon lies in the record it preserves of the early evolution of a terrestrial planet, and of the near-Earth cosmic environment in the first billion years or so of Solar System history. This record may not be preserved anywhere else; gaining proper access to it will require a human presence. Moreover, while this will primarily be a task for the geosciences, the astronomical and biological sciences would also benefit from a renewed human presence on the Moon, and especially from the establishment of a permanently occupied scientific outpost.     

Lunar base development missions

On 20 July 1969, humankind first set foot on our Moon. Since then we have developed the Space Shuttle, explored most of the planets, cooperated in the development of the International Space Station, and expanded our knowledge of the universe through use of systems such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the Mars Pathfinder. After just five human follow-on missions to our Moon, we have returned robotically only twice to orbit, to map the surface and explore for resources.

The indication of the presence of hydrogen concentration at the poles of our Moon found by Lunar Prospector has added a new perspective for groups studying and implementing future lunar missions. Plans for nearterm missions such as the European Space Agency (ESA) “Euromoon 2000”, the Japanese Lunar A and Selene, and the Mitsubishi ”Earthrise 2001” Project, along with follow-on phases to the Lunar Prospector, are the beginning of humankind's return to the Moon. Organizations such as the International Academy of Astronautics have long championed the “Case for an International Lunar Base,” and a vision of a commercially-based lunar program has been outlined by several groups. A Lunar Economic Development Authority (LEDA) promoted by the United Society in Space was promulgated by the filing of articles of incorporation in the state of Colorado on 4 August 1997. This non-profit corporation has as its goal the orderly development of the Moon, through issuance of bonds to international private citizens and business entities who care to invest in its long-term development.

This paper draws from the works of the aforementioned, and specifically from the International Academy of Astronautics Lunar Base Committee, to structure a series of architectures leading toward eventual international commercial colonization of the lunar surface. While the prospect of fully reusable transportation systems utilizing fully developed lunar resources to perpetuate the permanent lunar infrastructure is enticing, this is a goal. We must utilize our current and near-term capabilities to re-initiate human lunar presence, and then build on emerging technologies to strengthen our capabilities. Humankind's return to the Moon is a part of our destiny. We can return in the near future, and then proceed to a commercial, permanent settlement in the 21st century.     

Meditations on the new space vision: the Moon as a stepping stone to Mars

The Vision for Space Exploration invokes activities on the Moon in preparation for exploration of Mars and also directs International Space Station (ISS) research toward the same goal. Lunar missions will emphasize development of capability and concomitant reduction of risk for future exploration of Mars. Earlier papers identified three critical issues related to the so-called NASA Mars Design Reference Mission (MDRM) to be addressed in the lunar context: (a) safety, health, and performance of the human crew; (b) various modalities of mission operations ranging surface activities to logistics, planning, and navigation; and (c) reliability and maintainability of systems in the planetary environment. In simple terms, lunar expeditions build a résumé that demonstrates the ability to design, construct, and operate an enterprise such as the MDRM with an expectation of mission success. We can evolve from Apollo-like missions to ones that resemble the complexity and duration of the MDRM. Investment in lunar resource utilization technologies falls naturally into the Vision. NASA must construct an exit strategy from the Moon in the third decade. With a mandate for continuing exploration, it cannot assume responsibility for long-term operation of lunar assets. Therefore, NASA must enter into a partnership with some other entity--governmental, international, or commercial--that can responsibly carry on lunar development past the exploration phase.     

Lunar precursor missions for human exploration of Mars--III: studies of system reliability and maintenance

Discussions of future human expeditions into the solar system generally focus on whether the next explorers ought to go to the Moon or to Mars. The only mission scenario developed in any detail within NASA is an expedition to Mars with a 500-day stay at the surface. The technological capabilities and the operational experience base required for such a mission do not now exist nor has any self-consistent program plan been proposed to acquire them. In particular, the lack of an Abort-to-Earth capability implies that critical mission systems must perform reliably for 3 years or must be maintainable and repairable by the crew. As has been previously argued, a well-planned program of human exploration of the Moon would provide a context within which to develop the appropriate technologies because a lunar expedition incorporates many of the operational elements of a Mars expedition. Initial lunar expeditions can be carried out at scales consistent with the current experience base but can be expanded in any or all operational phases to produce an experience base necessary to successfully and safely conduct human exploration of Mars.     

The ethics of treading on Neil Armstrong''s footprints

The Moon landings of the Apollo programme irrevocably changed the way we see ourselves. Most significantly, this was the first time that humans had set foot on a celestial body other than Earth. The program has left a number of sites on the Moon as well as on Earth. While the management of the sites and artefacts on Earth is fairly straightforward as they are subject to national heritage legislation, it is not so simple with the sites and artefacts on the lunar surface. Moreover, the sites on the Moon differ in one unique aspect from all other heritage sites on Earth: the absence of a lunar atmosphere of any note means that all foot- and track prints of the astronauts are preserved providing a total record of the pioneering phases of human exploration of the Moon. The nascent developments of space tourism, including proposals for lunar heritage tourism, however, threaten the preservation of these traces on the Moon. This paper discusses the terrestrial and in particular the extraterrestrial heritage of the Apollo programme. Set out are the management ethics that need to apply on the lunar surface if this unique heritage is to have a future.     

月面设施原位建造技术的研究进展

月面设施原位制造技术是未来航天科技发展的热点技术之一。以美、欧为代表的航天强国及组织均开展了月球原位制造技术的研究,研制了原位制造设备,并开展了相应的地面工艺验证工作,积累了有价值的试验数据和技术参数。在充分调研及跟踪国内外月面设施原位建造最新成果的基础上,系统分析国内外月面设施原位建造技术的发展思路,为我国月球基地的建造提供参考,对我国的载人登月、月球基地等月球探测任务的实施具有重要意义。     

Contingency and recovery options for the European Student Moon Orbiter

This paper presents an overview of the analysis performed on the lunar orbit and some of the possible contingencies for the European Student Moon Orbiter (ESMO). Originally scheduled for launch in 2014 –2015 as a piggyback payload, it was the only ESA planned mission to the Moon. By way of a weak stability boundary transfer, ESMO is inserted into an orbit around the Moon. Propellant use is at a premium, so the operational orbit is selected to be highly eccentric. In addition, an optimization is presented to achieve an orbit that is stable for 6 months without requiring orbit maintenance. A parameter study is undertaken to study the sensitivity of the lunar orbit insertion. A database of transfer solutions across 2014 and 2015 is used to study the relation between the robustness of weak capture and the planetary geometry at lunar arrival. A number of example recovery scenarios, where the orbit insertion maneuver partially or completely fails, are also considered.     

A gateway for human exploration of space? The weak stability boundary

NASA's plans for future human exploration of the Solar System describe only missions to Mars. Before such missions can be initiated, much study remains to be done in technology development, mission operations and human performance. While, for example, technology validation and operational experience could be gained in the context of lunar exploration missions, a NASA lunar program is seen as a competitor to a Mars mission rather than a step towards it. The recently characterized weak stability boundary in the Earth–Moon gravitational field may provide an operational approach to all types of planetary exploration, and infrastructure developed for a gateway to the Solar System may be a programmatic solution for exploration that avoids the fractious bickering between Mars and Moon advocates. This viewpoint proposes utilizing the concept of Greater Earth to educate policy makers, opinion makers and the public about these subtle attributes of our space neighborhood.     

嫦娥一号卫星的初步科学成果与嫦娥二号卫星的使命

嫦娥一号卫星于2007年10月24日在西昌卫星发射中心成功发射,2009年3月1日受控落月,在轨运行495d,一共取得了1.37Tbyte的原始科学探测数据,在此基础上生产出4Tbyte科学应用数据产品。通过对这些科学探测数据的初步分析和应用研究,已经获得了包括＂我国首次月球探测工程全月球影像图＂等在内的一系列科学成果,圆满实现了预期的各项科学目标,为推动我国月球与行星科学的研究和后续月球探测工程的开展奠定了重要基础。嫦娥二号卫星在嫦娥一号卫星取得圆满成功之后,进行了一系列技术改进,作为探月二期工程的先导星,将于今年年底前发射升空。嫦娥二号卫星从发射到第一次近月制动所经历的时间由13d缩短为5d,环月轨道高度由200km降低为100km,CCD相机的像元分辨率由120m提高到10m,激光高度计测量月面高程由1次/s提高到5次/s。嫦娥二号卫星将重点开展对月面着陆区地形地貌的精细探测,试验验证相关关键技术,为探月二期月面软着陆奠定科学和技术基础。     

探月飞行的调相轨道

早期的探月飞行都采用直接由地球飞到月球的地月转移方式,探测器由运载火箭直接发送到地月转移轨道,这样做的好处是飞行时间比较短,只需3至5天的时间。20世纪90年代开始的新一轮探月活动中采用了一种新的飞行方式,探测器飞离地球前,先在绕地球飞行的调相轨道上运行若干圈,这样做的好处有三：一是可以在运载火箭能力不够的情况下,由探测器来补充;二是可以减小转移轨道中途修正的负担;三是可以扩大发射机会窗口。文章以嫦娥一号探测器及美、日的两个月球探测器为例,详细讨论了这种新的飞行方式,同时还对我国后续探月计划的飞行轨道提出了初步建议。     

Stepping stones to the future: Achieving a sustainable lunar outpost

The current emphasis in the US and internationally on lunar robotic missions is generally viewed as a precursor to possible future human missions to the Moon. As initially framed, the implementation of high level policies such as the US Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) might have been limited to either human lunar sortie missions, or to the testing at the Moon of concepts-of-operations and systems for eventual human missions to Mars [White House, Vision for Space Exploration, Washington, DC, 14 January, 2004. [1]]. However, recently announced (December 2006) US goals go much further: these plans now place at the center of future US—and perhaps international—human spaceflight activities a long-term commitment to an outpost on the Moon.Based on available documents, a human lunar outpost could be emplaced as early as the 2020–2025 timeframe, and would involve numerous novel systems, new technologies and unique operations requirements. As such, substantial investments in research and development (R&D) will be necessary prior to, during, and following the deployment of such an outpost. It seems possible that such an outpost will be an international endeavor, not just the undertaking of a single country—and the US has actively courted partners in the VSE. However, critical questions remain concerning an international lunar outpost. What might such an outpost accomplish? To what extent will “sustainability” be built into the outpost? And, most importantly, what will be the outpost's life cycle cost (LCC)?This paper will explore these issues with a view toward informing key policy and program decisions that must be made during the next several years. The paper will (1) describe a high-level analytical model of a modest lunar outpost, (2) examine (using this model) the parametric characteristics of the outpost in terms of the three critical questions indicated above, and (3) present rough estimates of the relationships of outpost goals and “sustainability” to LCC. The paper will also consider possible outpost requirements for near-term investments in enabling research in light of experiences in past advanced technology programs.     

Creating a productive international partnership in the Vision for Space Exploration

When US President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004 announced a new US “Vision for Space Exploration”, he called for international participation in “a journey, not a race”, a call received with skepticism and concern elsewhere. But, after a slow start in implementing this directive, during 2006 NASA has increased the forward momentum of action on the program and of discussions on international cooperation in exploring “the Moon, Mars, and beyond”. There are nevertheless a number of significant top-level issues that must be addressed if a cooperative approach to human space exploration is to be pursued. These include the relationship between utilization of the ISS and the lunar exploration plans, integration of potential partners’ current and future capabilities into the exploration plans, and the evolving space-related intentions of other countries.     

The NASA astrobiology program

The new discipline of astrobiology addresses fundamental questions about life in the universe: "Where did we come from?" "Are we alone in the universe?" "What is our future beyond the Earth?" Developing capabilities in biotechnology, informatics, and space exploration provide new tools to address these old questions. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has encouraged this new discipline by organizing workshops and technical meetings, establishing a NASA Astrobiology Institute, providing research funds to individual investigators, ensuring that astrobiology goals are incorporated in NASA flight missions, and initiating a program of public outreach and education. Much of the initial effort by NASA and the research community was focused on determining the technical content of astrobiology. This paper discusses the initial answer to the question "What is astrobiology?" as described in the NASA Astrobiology Roadmap.     

月球探测与开发愿景（英文）

By summarizing the history, human achievements in lunar exploration, the vision and prospect of the construction of a lunar base for the further development in lunar exploration is proposed. The idea of building a "beehive" lunar village is proposed, and the promotion of future lunar exploration along with the impact on the development of science, technology and the economy is analyzed in this paper.     

Return to the Moon: A sustainable strategy

On 14 January 2004 President George Bush announced his vision for space exploration, to include a human return to the Moon. He argued that, with a moderate increase in NASA's annual expenditure, such a return was possible. This paper is an exploration of how the President's space initiative can be realised on an international co-operative basis along similar lines to those already existing with the international space station (ISS). By abandoning the concept of a lunar landing as the major goal of a lunar programme, the initiative is made feasible. The three-stage plan here presented meshes with the currently evolving plans for the US space initiative to provide a realistic, affordable and sustainable strategy for manned lunar exploration. It represents a significant opportunity for the USA to unite and lead the world on this grand, civilisation defining adventure.