Surface temperature estimation in Singhbhum Shear Zone of India using Landsat-7 ETM+ thermal infrared data

Land surface temperature (LST) is an important factor in global change studies, heat balance and as control for climate change. A comparative study of LST over parts of the Singhbhum Shear Zone in India was undertaken using various emissivity and temperature retrieval algorithms applied on visible and near infrared (VNIR), and thermal infrared (TIR) bands of high resolution Landsat-7 ETM+ imagery. LST results obtained from satellite data of October 26, 2001 and November 2, 2001 through various algorithms were validated with ground measurements collected during satellite overpass. In addition, LST products of MODIS and ASTER were compared with Landsat-7 ETM+ and ground truth data to explore the possibility of using multi-sensor approach in LST monitoring. An image-based dark object subtraction (DOS3) algorithm, which is yet to be tested for LST retrieval, was applied on VNIR bands to obtain atmospheric corrected surface reflectance images. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was estimated from VNIR reflectance image. Various surface emissivity retrieval algorithms based on NDVI and vegetation proportion were applied to ascertain emissivities of the various land cover categories in the study area in the spectral range of 10.4–12.5 μm. A minimum emissivity value of about 0.95 was observed over the reflective rock body with a maximum of about 0.99 over dense forest. A strong correlation was established between Landsat ETM+ reflectance band 3 and emissivity. Single channel based algorithms were adopted for surface radiance and brightness temperature. Finally, emissivity correction was applied on ‘brightness temperature’ to obtain LST. Estimated LST values obtained from various algorithms were compared with field ground measurements for different land cover categories. LST values obtained after using Valor’s emissivity and single channel equations were best correlated with ground truth temperature. Minimum LST is observed over dense forest as about 26 °C and maximum LST is observed over rock body of about 38 °C. The estimated LST showed that rock bodies, bare soils and built-up areas exhibit higher surface temperatures, while water bodies, agricultural croplands and dense vegetations have lower surface temperatures during the daytime. The accuracy of the estimated LST was within ±2 °C. LST comparison of ASTER and MODIS with Landsat has a maximum difference of 2 °C. Strong correlation was found between LST and spectral radiance of band 6 of Landsat-7 ETM+. Result corroborates the fact that surface temperatures over land use/land cover types are greatly influenced by the amount of vegetation present.     

基于多光谱测温优化的材料光谱发射率测量

针对高温材料红外光谱发射率测量中样品表面温度难以准确测量的问题,提出了直接使用光谱仪测量得出样品表面的光谱辐射能量信息,选取其中合适的光谱波段利用多光谱测温方法得到样品表面温度,进而计算出材料的光谱发射率.分析了多光谱测温中发射率模型的阶次和测量波段选取对测温准确度的影响,给出了温度计算的稳健算法,并对其主要不确定度的来源进行了评定.在1 100 K左右温度下以不锈钢材料进行实验验证,得出温度引起的光谱发射率相对不确定度在2～20 μm范围内低于2%,满足红外隐身和辐射测温等领域的要求,适合于导热性能差的材料或涂层材料的高温光谱发射率测量.     

PCB红外热像辐射率校准的非线性滤波方法

在印制电路板(PCB)的红外辐射诊断中,为了获得PCB表面温度的真实分布,须对PCB红外热像进行辐射率校准.将PCB表面温度的测量波形看作真实温度分布与辐射率分布的混合波形,提出一种非线性滤波方法,利用二者连续性的差异将其区分开来.讨论了作为该方法关键步骤的红外热像突变点检测的小波变换实现问题.实验结果表明该方法能够准确地估计PCB表面温度的真实分布波形.该方法还可以用于PCB红外热像的热源辨识以及对未知材料的辐射率估计中.     

The use of stereoscopic satellite observation in the determination of the emissivity of cirrus

The feasibility of determining cirrus “emissivity” from combined stereoscopic and infrared satellite observations in conjunction with radiosounding data is investigated for a particular case study. Simultaneous visible images obtained during SESAME-1979 from two geosynchronous GOES meteorological satellites were processed on the NASA/Goddard interactive system (AOIPS) and were used to determine the stereo cloud top height Z_C as described by Hasler [1]. Iso-contours of radiances were outlined on the corresponding infrared image. Total brightness temperature T_B and ground surface brightness temperature T_S were inferred from the radiances. The special SESAME network of radiosoundings was used to determine the cloud top temperature T_CLD at the level defined by Z_C. The “effective cirrus emissivity” NE where N is the fractional cirrus cloudiness and E is the emissivity in a GOES infrared picture element of about 10 km × 10 km is then computed from T_B, T_S and T_CLD.     

Determination of land surface temperature using precipitable water based Split-Window and Artificial Neural Network in Turkey

Land surface temperature (LST) calculation utilizing satellite thermal images is very difficult due to the great temporal variance of atmospheric water vapor in the atmosphere which strongly affects the thermal radiance incoming to satellite sensors. In this study, Split-Window (SW) and Radial Basis Function (RBF) methods were utilized for prediction of LST using precipitable water for Turkey. Coll 94 Split-Window algorithm was modified using regional precipitable water values estimated from upper-air Radiosond observations for the years 1990–2007 and Local Split-Window (LSW) algorithms were generated for the study area. Using local algorithms and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data, monthly mean daily sum LST values were calculated. In RBF method latitude, longitude, altitude, surface emissivity, sun shine duration and precipitable water values were used as input variables of the structure. Correlation coefficients between estimated and measured LST values were obtained as 99.23% (for RBF) and 94.48% (for LSW) at 00:00 UTC and 92.77% (for RBF) and 89.98% (for LSW) at 12:00 UTC. These meaningful statistical results suggest that RBF and LSW methods could be used for LST calculation.     

Remote sensing based continuous hydrologic modeling

There are two principal ways in which remote sensing can be used with continuous hydrological models: (1) by providing a cost effective way for obtaining input data and (2) by providing synoptic measurements of various state variables. This paper discusses existing hydrologic models and the modifications required to adapt them for using remotely sensed data that may significantly improve their simulation performance. Microwave and thermal infrared measurements show promise for use in hydrologic models because they can measure certain physical properties of the watershed (emissivity and temperature) from which a hydrologic condition can be inferred. Additional applications of remote sensing data include the use of spatial data, mechanisms for extrapolating point data and direct measurement of several hydrologic state variables such as soil moisture, surface temperature, snow water equivalent, frozen soils, and rainfall distribution. Results are presented from several aircraft flights where thermal infrared and microwave data were collected over a small research basin. These results are discussed with respect to their application in continuous hydrologic simulation models.     

Landsat 8地表温度产品验证与分析

Landsat系列卫星热波段具有60~120m的空间分辨率，对各种环境监测起到了重要的作用。随着Landsat系列卫星在全球范围内地表温度（land surface temperature，LST）产品的发布，其验证工作也随之展开，然而对于长时间序列的精度验证工作仍然缺乏。以黑河流域中游为研究区，利用研究区内湿地站（SD）、戈壁站（GB）和大满超级站（CJZ）三个气象站的地面测量数据对2013-2016年清晰无云的31景Landsat 8地表温度产品进行了验证与分析，并将Landsat 8地表温度产品与广泛使用的普适性单通道算法（JMS）反演结果进行了对比。结果表明，Landsat 8地表温度产品与普适性单通道算法反演结果精度均较高，在各个站点处R2均优于0.949。基于所有站点分析，Landsat 8地表温度产品精度稍高于普适性单通道算法反演结果。     

直流磁控溅射ZnO:Al薄膜的光电和红外发射特性

以锌、铝合金(ω(Al)=3%)为靶材,利用直流反应磁控溅射法制备了系列掺铝氧化锌ZnO:Al(ZAO)薄膜样品,通过X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、分光光度计、霍耳效应及红外发射率测量仪等测试仪器或方法表征了样品的结构、形貌、光学、电学及红外发射特性.测得样品最低电阻率达到1.8×10^-6(Ω·m),最大禁带宽度为3.47?eV,可见光区平均透过率达到90%,8~14?μm波段平均红外发射率在0.26~0.9之间.上述特性均随衬底温度和溅射功率的变化有着规律的变化.当方块电阻小于45?Ω时,薄膜在8~14?μm波段平均红外发射率与方块电阻遵循二阶函数变化规律.     

月面载荷被动热控技术

由于月面温度环境变化幅度较大,月面载荷需要通过被动热控装置有效控制其与外部环境的换热量,使其本体温度维持在工作或储存温度范围内。文章分析了月面载荷与外部空间环境换热方式;论述了低当量发射率多层隔热组件设计与结构组成;讨论了月面载荷最外表面辐射屏ε和α_s特殊设计及对其表面辐射平衡温度影响;指出利用月壤恒温层及其特性,展开式外多层隔热组件可以在载荷所在月面处形成一个温度相对稳定的月面小环境,其平均温度与当地月壤恒温层温度相当。     

三波长辐射温度计

采用辐射法测量物体表面真实温度的最大困难是被测材料表面的发射率难测。三波长辐射温度计能消除发射率对测温的影响,尤其是对抛光表面的测温。本文基于推导多波长辐射温度计的理论,推出了一种三波长辐射测温法的新关系式,并建立了三波长辐射温度计的数学模型。     

First-order feasibility analysis of a space suit radiator concept based on estimation of water mass sublimation using Apollo mission data

Thermal control of a space suit during extravehicular activity (EVA) is typically accomplished by sublimating water to provide system cooling. Spacecraft, on the other hand, primarily rely on radiators to dissipate heat. Integrating a radiator into a space suit has been proposed as an alternative design that does not require mass consumption for heat transfer. While providing cooling without water loss offers potential benefits for EVA application, it is not currently practical to rely on a directional, fixed-emissivity radiator to maintain thermal equilibrium of a spacesuit where the radiator orientation, environmental temperature, and crew member metabolic heat load fluctuate unpredictably. One approach that might make this feasible, however, is the use of electrochromic devices that are capable of infrared emissivity modulation and can be actively controlled across the entire suit surface to regulate net heat flux for the system. Integrating these devices onto the irregular, compliant space suit material requires that they be fabricated on a flexible substrate, such as Kapton film. An initial assessment of whether or not this candidate technology presents a feasible design option was conducted by first characterizing the mass of water loss from sublimation that could theoretically be saved if an electrochromic suit radiator was employed for thermal control. This is particularly important for lunar surface exploration, where the expense of transporting water from Earth is excessive, but the technology is potentially beneficial for other space missions as well. In order to define a baseline for this analysis by comparison to actual data, historical documents from the Apollo missions were mined for comprehensive, detailed metabolic data from each lunar surface outing, and related data from NASA’s more recent “Advanced Lunar Walkback” tests were also analyzed. This metabolic database was then used to validate estimates for sublimator water consumption during surface EVAs, and solar elevation angles were added to predict the performance of an electrochromic space suit radiator under Apollo conditions. Then, using these actual data sets, the hypothetical water mass savings that would be expected had this technology been employed were calculated. The results indicate that electrochromic suit radiators would have reduced sublimator water consumption by 69.0% across the entire Apollo program, for a total mass savings of 68.5 kg to the lunar surface. Further analysis is needed to determine the net impact as a function of the complete system, taking into account both suit components and consumable mass, but the water mass reduction found in this study suggests a favorable system trade is likely.     

Estimating irrigation water use and withdrawal of ground water on the High Plains,U.S.A.

In four decades following the Dust Bowl days of the 1930's, extensive areas of dry farming and rangeland on the semi-arid U.S. High Plains were transformed into a vast region of irrigated oases, producing meat and grain for much of the world. The agricultural economy has experienced such rapid growth in part because of the availability of ground water and because of development of new irrigation technology to use that water for agriculture. However, more water is being used than is being replaced. To estimate both the volume of water withdrawn and the regional scope of the problem a technique has been developed that combines multispectral data from Earth-orbiting satellite with known pumpage data for the same growing season. The location and extent of irrigated cropland—some with different crops watered at different times—is inventoried using computer-assisted analysis of the data from Landsat. The amount of water used is estimated by multiplying and summing surface area of irrigated agriculture and the average measured pumpage from sampled sites. Published findings to date are cited in the Selected References. All suggest transferability of a promising technology to the study of land transformation processes elsewhere.     

Validation of non-linear split window algorithm for land surface temperature estimation using Sentinel-3 satellite imagery: Case study; Tehran Province,Iran

In recent years, land surface temperature (LST) has become critical in environmental studies and earth science. Remote sensing technology enables spatiotemporal monitoring of this parameter on large scales. This parameter can be estimated by satellite images with at least one thermal band. Sentinel-3 SLSTR data provide LST products with a spatial resolution of 1 km. In this research, direct and indirect validation procedures were employed to evaluate the Sentinel-3 SLSTR LST products over the study area in different seasons from 2018 to 2019. The validation method was based on the absolute (direct) evaluation of this product with field data and comparison (indirect) evaluation with the MODIS LST product and the estimated LST using the non-linear split-window (NSW) algorithm. Also, two emissivity estimation methods, (1) NDVI thresholding method (NDVI-THM) and (2) classification-based emissivity method (CBEM), were used to estimate the LST using the NSW method according to the two thermal bands of Sentinel-3 images. Then, the accuracy of these methods in estimating LST was evaluated using field data and temporal changes of vegetation, which the NDVI-THM method generated better results. For indirect evaluation between the Sentinel-3 LST product, MODIS LST product, and LST estimated using NSW, four filters based on spatial and temporal separates between pairs of pixels and pixel quality were used to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the compared pairs of a pixel. In general, the accuracy results of the LST products of MODIS and Sentinel-3, and LST estimated using NSW showed a similar trend for LST changes during the seasons. With respect to the two absolute and comparative validations for the Sentinel-3 LST products, summer with the highest values of bias (?1.24 K), standard deviation (StDv = 2.66 K), and RMSE (2.43 K), and winter with the lowest ones (bias of 0.14 K, StDv of 1.13 K, and RMSE of 1.12 K) provided the worst and best results for the seasons in the period of 2018–2019, respectively. According to both absolute and comparative evaluation results, the Sentinel-3 SLSTR LST products provided reliable results for all seasons on a large temporal and spatial scale over our studied area.     

基于双响应波段工作的红外热像仪测温原理与误差分析

为了提高红外热像仪测温的准确性,根据红外辐射理论,从红外热像仪的测温原理出发,分析了基于双响应工作波段的热像仪的测温原理,得出了目标物体的发射率、物体温度计算公式以及相应误差的估算公式,分析了各影响因素对热像仪测量准确度的影响,提供了一种目标物体发射率的测定方法,对利用红外热像仪准确测量内燃机等热能机械表面温度具有重要的意义。     

Influence of lunar topography on simulated surface temperature

The surface temperature of the Moon is one of the essential parameters for the lunar exploration, especially to evaluate the Moon thermophysical features. The distribution of the temperature is heavily influenced by the Moon topography, which, however, is rarely studied in the state-of-art surface temperature models. Therefore, this paper takes the Moon topography into account to improve the surface temperature model, Racca model. The main parameters, such as slopes along the longitude and latitude directions, are estimated with the topography data from Chang’E-1 satellite and the Horn algorithm. Then the effective solar illumination model is then constructed with the slopes and the relative position to the subsolar point. Finally, the temperature distribution over the Moon surface is obtained with the effective illumination model and the improved Racca model. The results indicate that the distribution of the temperature is very sensitive to the fluctuation of the Moon surface. The change of the surface temperature is up to 150 K in some places compared to the result without considering the topography. In addition, the variation of the surface temperature increases with the distance from the subsolar point and the elevation, along both latitude and longitude directions. Furthermore, the simulated surface temperature coincides well with the brightness temperature in 37 GHz observed by the microwave sounder onboard Chang’E-2 satellite. The corresponded emissivity map not only eliminates the influence of the topography, but also hints the inherent properties of the lunar regolith just below the surface. Last but not the least, the distribution of the permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) in the lunar pole area is also evaluated with the simulated surface temperature result.     

A generalised methodology for estimating land surface temperature for non-urban areas of Greece through the combined use of NOAA–AVHRR data and ancillary information

The purpose of this study was twofold: to develop a methodology for the estimation of land surface temperature for non-urban areas and to analyze the sensitivity of the methodology. The key element of the methodology was the development of emissivity maps based on CORINE Land Cover and the ASTER spectral library. Land surface temperatures were derived from NOAA/AVHRR data and the methodology was applied at a national scale in Greece, with emphasis given to non-urban areas. A sensitivity analysis was performed in order to determine the variables that mainly affect the estimation of land surface temperature. A varying propagation error was identified depending on the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere, as well as the land cover type. The methodology was applied to a series of 25 AVHRR images and the results were compared to in-situ measurements from representative stations.     

Substitution of satellite-based land surface temperature defective data using GSP method

Land surface temperature (LST) as an important environmental variable provides valuable information for earth environmental system modelling. Currently, LST is obtained through satellite thermal sensors at various spatial and temporal resolutions. Although spatially continuous satellite-based LST measurements are intended to overcome the shortcomings of sparse ground-based LST measurements, LST images often contain anomalous values due to the existence of clouds or sensor malfunctioning. The problem becomes more serious where the users deal with high spatial resolution characterized by low temporal resolution. This study examines the capability of a newly developed graph signal processing (GSP) method using two-dimensional single-date thermal data. For this purpose, four Landsat/TIRS datasets are analyzed. The data of five elliptical regions on thermal images are eliminated and then reconstructed through the GSP method and using the LST values of the enclosing rectangles containing the ellipsoids. The results indicate that the temperature variation determined by the GSP method generally conforms to the original image LST values. According to a correlation test conducted on the original image LST and those obtained through the GSP method, the values vary from 58% to 95%, which is an above-the-average rate (RMSE from 0.69 to 2.27). The statistical analysis of the original image LST in both the elliptical regions and the enclosing rectangles containing the ellipsoids indicates that an increase in the variance of LST data causes an increased error in the calculation of temperature by the GSP method, and vice versa. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan test indicated that an increase in the number of the non-zero spectral bins would result in increased RMSE values for all the dates and the regions. Moreover, the model errors were significant at the 0.05 level across all the image date and five elliptical study regions. Based on the results, the use of this method is recommended for the reconstruction of LST missing values, where dissimilarity of atmospheric conditions limits the use of other methods that depend on the time series data of various dates and a great deal of data calculation.     

Environmental degradation analysis using NOAA/AVHRR data

This paper proposes a particular approach to assess information about soil degradation, based on a methodology to calculate soil color from NOAA/AVHRR data. As erosive processes change physical and chemical properties of the soil, altering, consequently, the superficial color, monitoring the change in color over time can help to identify and analyze those processes. A relationship among the soil color (described in the Munsell Color System, i.e., in terms of Hue, Value and Chroma), vegetation indices, surface temperature and emissivity has been established, which is based on the theoretical model. The methodology has three main phases: determination of the regression models among soil color and vegetation indices, emissivity and surface temperature; generation of digital soil color models; and statistical evaluation of the estimated color. The tests showed that the methodology is efficient in determining soil color using the various vegetation indices (i.e., Normalized vegetation index NDVI, Modified soil adjusted vegetation index MSAVI). One vegetation index, i.e., Purified adjusted vegetation index (PAVI) is proposed to subsidies the effect of vegetation over the soil. Best results were obtained for the Hue color component. To further test the methodology, the estimated digital color models were compared with the characteristic color of soil classes in the test area. The results of this application confirmed the methodology’s capacity to determine the soil color from NOAA/AVHRR data. This type of study is quite helpful to know the erosion of soil as well as some abrupt change in soil due to natural hazards by space borne or air-borne sensors.     

Investigations on temperature distribution of satellite surfaces affected by solar absorptivity

Based on the Monte Carlo ray-tracing method, the network coefficients of thermal network model describing the radiation heat transfer among satellite surfaces is solved by considering the surface material optical characters. It is superiority to the conventional Gebhart’s method in view of the grey body and the diffuse reflection assumptions. The zone leveling method is used to discrete the governing equations and the solar absorpivity is separated and considered to be an important correction parameter. Effects of the solar incidence round angle, the zenith angle and the ratio of absorpivity to emissivity (RAE) on temperature distribution are numerically simulated and discussed in detail. The higher or the lower the RAE may be lead to the alternative heating and cooling tend with a larger heating or cooling velocity of main body surfaces than the solar array surfaces. Furthermore, maximum temperature of main body is almost larger than solar arrays. Under the same RAE, solar incidence angle make a great effect on the uniform character of temperature distribution.     

临近空间环境下封闭方腔内耦合换热特性

以临近空间浮空器载荷舱为应用背景,对复杂热边界条件下含热源的三维封闭方腔内自然对流、表面辐射和导热的耦合问题进行了数值模拟。综合考虑对流换热、长波辐射、太阳辐射等因素的影响,建立了临近空间热环境模型。通过Fluent软件用户自定义函数（UDF）引入外部非定常的辐射-对流耦合热边界条件,对腔内换热特性的昼夜变化进行研究,并分析了腔壁厚度、发射率和导热系数对其的影响。数值结果表明,腔内平均温度昼夜变化很小,约为12.9 K,但温度场分布随太阳方位变化而变化;腔内对流换热较弱,同一时刻最大温差约为71.3 K;腔壁热阻和发射率增加会削弱自然对流的强度。