Simulating clefts in pumpkin balloons

The geometry of a large axisymmetric balloon with positive differential pressure, such as a sphere, leads to very high film stresses. These stresses can be significantly reduced by using a tendon re-enforced lobed pumpkin-like shape. A number of schemes have been proposed to achieve a cyclically symmetric pumpkin shape, including the constant bulge angle (CBA) design, the constant bulge radius (CBR) design, CBA/CBR hybrids, and NASA’s recent constant stress (CS) design. Utilizing a hybrid CBA/CBR pumpkin design, Flight 555-NT in June 2006 formed an S-cleft and was unable to fully deploy. In order to better understand the S-cleft phenomenon, a series of inflation tests involving four 27-m diameter 200-gore pumpkin balloons were conducted in 2007. One of the test vehicles was a 1/3-scale mockup of the Flight 555-NT balloon. Using an inflation procedure intended to mimic ascent, the 1/3-scale mockup developed an S-cleft feature strikingly similar to the one observed in Flight 555-NT. Our analysis of the 1/3-scale mockup found it to be unstable. We compute asymmetric equilibrium configurations of this balloon, including shapes with an S-cleft feature.     

Development overview of the revised NASA Ultra Long Duration Balloon

The desire for longer duration stratospheric flights at constant float altitudes for heavy payloads has been the focus of the development of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Ultra Long Duration Balloon (ULDB) effort. Recent efforts have focused on ground testing and analysis to understand the previously observed issue of balloon deployment. A revised approach to the pumpkin balloon design has been tested through ground testing of model balloons and through two test flights. The design approach does not require foreshortening, and will significantly reduce the balloon handling during manufacture reducing the chances of inducing damage to the envelope. Successful ground testing of model balloons lead to the fabrication and test flight of a ∼176,000 m³ (∼6.2 MCF – Million Cubic Foot) balloon. Pre-flight analytical predictions predicted that the proposed flight balloon design to be stable and should fully deploy. This paper provides an overview of this first test flight of the revised Ultra Long Duration Balloon design which was a short domestic test flight from Ft. Sumner, NM, USA. This balloon fully deployed, but developed a leak under pressurization. After an extensive investigation to the cause of the leak, a second test flight balloon was fabricated. This ∼176,000 m³ (∼6.2 MCF) balloon was flown from Kiruna, Sweden in June of 2006. Flight results for both test flights, including flight performance are presented.     

Investigation of ultra violet (UV) resistance for high strength fibers

Ultra long duration balloons (ULDB), currently under development by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), requires the use of high strength fibers in the selected super-pressure pumpkin design. The pumpkin shape balloon concept allows clear separation of the load transferring functions of the major structural elements of the pneumatic envelope, the tendons and the film. Essentially, the film provides the gas barrier and transfers only local pressure load to the tendons. The tendons, in the mean time, provide the global pressure containing strength. In that manner, the strength requirement for the film only depends on local parameters. The tendon is made of p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole (PBO) fibers, which is selected due to its high strength to weight ratio when compared to other high performance, commercially available, fibers. High strength fibers, however, are known to degrade upon exposure to light, particularly at short wavelengths. This paper reports the results of an investigation of the resistance of four commercial high strength fibers to ultra violet (UV) exposure. The results indicate that exposing high strength fibers in continuous yarn form to UV led to serious loss in strength of the fibers except for Spectra^® fibers. The adverse changes in mechanical behavior occurred over short duration of exposure compared to the 100 day duration targeted for these missions. UV blocking finishes to improve the UV resistance of these fibers are being investigated. The application of these specially formulated coatings is expected to lead to significant improvement of the UV resistance of these high performance fibers. In this publication, we report on the mechanical behavior of the fibers pre- and post-exposure to UV, but without application of the blocking finishes.     

Development of a super-pressure balloon with a diamond-shaped net

The essential reason of the lobed-pumpkin shaped super-pressure balloon to withstand against the high pressure is that the local curvature of the balloon film is kept small. Recently, it has been found that the small local curvature can also be obtained if the balloon is covered by a diamond-shaped net with a vertically elongated shape. The development of the super-pressure balloon using this method was started from a 3-m balloon with a polyethylene film covered by a net using Kevlar ropes. The ground inflation test showed the expected high burst pressure. Then, a 6-m and a 12-m balloon using a polyethylene film and a net using the Vectran were developed and stable deployment was checked through the ground inflation tests. The flight test of a 3000 m³ balloon was performed in 2013 and shown to resist a pressure of at least 400 Pa. In the future, after testing a new design to relax a possible stress concentration around the polar area, test flights of scaled balloons will be performed gradually enlarging their size. The goal is to launch a 300,000 m³ super-pressure balloon.     

Properties of tandem balloons connected by extendable suspension wires

The tandem balloon system has been known as a candidate system for long duration flight balloons. In this paper, the properties of the system are analytically studied in a new way by introducing an extendable suspension wire in the Sky Anchor configuration, which consists of a zero-pressure main balloon suspending a payload and a super-pressure balloon suspended below the payload. It was found that extension of the suspension wire between the payload and the super-pressure balloon can extend the capability of the tandem system; the altitude of the zero-pressure balloon can be changed without any consumables except some energy, and the day–night oscillation of the balloon altitude can be suppressed. This property is useful as the vehicle for long duration flights. It is also pointed out that the method to control the altitude of a balloon using an additional suspended super-pressure balloon can also be applied for super-pressure balloons.     

Evolution of scientific ballooning and its impact on astrophysics research

As we celebrate the centennial year of the discovery of cosmic rays on a manned balloon, it seems appropriate to reflect on the evolution of ballooning and its scientific impact. Balloons have been used for scientific research since they were invented in France more than 200 years ago. Ballooning was revolutionized in 1950 with the introduction of the so-called natural shape balloon with integral load tapes. This basic design has been used with more or less continuously improved materials for scientific balloon flights for more than a half century, including long-duration balloon (LDB) flights around Antarctica for the past two decades. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is currently developing the next generation super-pressure balloon that would enable extended duration missions above 99.5% of the Earth’s atmosphere at any latitude. The Astro2010 Decadal Survey report supports super-pressure balloon development and the giant step forward it offers with ultra-long-duration balloon (ULDB) flights at constant altitudes for about 100 days.     

Ballooning activities in Japan

The Scientific Balloon Center of ISAS/JAXA has carried out two balloon campaigns at Sanriku, Iwate, Japan every year. Ten to twelve balloon vehicles are launched annually for scientific and engineering experiments. Since 2005, a Brazilian balloon campaign has also been conducted in cooperation with INPE. In the 2006 Brazilian campaign, large and heavy payloads up to 1500 kg for astronomy will be launched. New generation balloons, such as super-pressure balloons and high-altitude balloons with ultra-thin films, are being developed. The current status and prospect of the Japanese scientific ballooning are discussed.     

Viscoelastic behaviour of pumpkin balloons

The lobes of the NASA ULDB pumpkin-shaped super-pressure balloons are made of a thin polymeric film that shows considerable time-dependent behaviour. A nonlinear viscoelastic model based on experimental measurements has been recently established for this film. This paper presents a simulation of the viscoelastic behaviour of ULDB balloons with the finite element software ABAQUS. First, the standard viscoelastic modelling capabilities available in ABAQUS are examined, but are found of limited accuracy even for the case of simple uniaxial creep tests on ULDB films. Then, a nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive model is implemented by means of a user-defined subroutine. This approach is verified by means of biaxial creep experiments on pressurized cylinders and is found to be accurate provided that the film anisotropy is also included in the model. A preliminary set of predictions for a single lobe of a ULDB is presented at the end of the paper. It indicates that time-dependent effects in a balloon structure can lead to significant stress redistribution and large increases in the transverse strains in the lobes.     

Feasibility study of a sea-anchored stratospheric balloon for long-duration flights

Sea-anchored balloons are stratospheric super-pressure balloons that are anchored to the sea. The sea-anchored balloon is a simple system that has the capability for long-duration flights, fixed-point observations, flexible launch windows, easy telemetry links to ground stations, and quick recoveries. Such balloons are not required to fly through the jet stream while tethered to the ground or sea, because the tether is deployed from a reel on the balloon after reaching a floating altitude. In this study, the feasibility of the sea-anchored balloon is investigated, with particular emphasis on the tether strength, balloon altitude, and system mass, based on the present technological level of the tether’s specific strength. Although the wind distribution with altitude is a dominant factor for feasibility, a sea-anchored balloon with an altitude of about 25 km would be feasible if the velocity of the jet stream is sufficiently low. The sea-anchored balloon can be simply flight-tested, since additional ground facilities and special flight operations are not necessary.     

Scientific ballooning in Japan

Activities in scientific ballooning in Japan during 1998–1999 are reported. The total number of scientific balloons flown in Japan in 1998 and 1999 was sixteen, eight flights in each year. The scientific objectives were observations of high energy cosmic electrons, air samplings at various altitudes, monitoring of atmospheric ozone density, Galactic infrared observations, and test flights of new type balloons. Balloon expeditions were conducted in Antarctica by the National Institute of Polar Research, in Russia, in Canada and in India in collaboration with foreign countries' institutes to investigate cosmic rays, Galactic infrared radiation, and Earth's atmosphere. There were three flights in Antarctica, four flights in Russia, three flights in Canada and two flights in India. Four test balloons were flown for balloon technology, which included pumpkin-type super-pressure balloon and a balloon made with ultra-thin polyethylene film of 3.4 μm thickness.     

Progress of super-pressure balloon development: A new “tawara” concept with improved stability

The super-pressure balloon (SPB) has been expected to be a flight vehicle that can provide a long flight duration to science. Since 1997, we have developed the SPB. Now we are at the phase of developing an SPB of a practical size. In 2009, we carried out a test flight of a pumpkin-shaped SPB with a 60,000 m³ volume. The undesirable result of this flight aroused us to resolve the deployment instability of the pumpkin-shaped SPB, which has been known as one of the most challenging issues confronting SPB development. To explore this deployment issue, in 2010, we carried out a series of ground tests. From results of these tests, we found that an SPB design modified from pumpkin, named “tawara”, can be a good candidate to greatly improve the deployment stability of the lobed SPB.     

Recent materials problems relating to catastrophic balloon failures

Balloons fabricated of thin polyethylene materials have provided relatively inexpensive and reliable scientific research platforms for approximately three decades. Reliability of the modern day balloon, as launched by the U.S.A. National Scientific Balloon Facility (NSBF), has been approximately 85%. Recent balloon failures, coupled with an increased occurrence of catastrophic failures, created grave concern over the integrity of the present balloon inventory of the U.S.A National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). An investigative team was established by NASA to review the circumstances surrounding the catastrophic balloon failures, determine the cause and to make recommendations to correct the problem and to prevent its reoccurrence. The most probable cause of failure as determined by the investigation was the polyethylene balloon film, although the film had passed the established standard quality control measures of the film manufacturer. The approach, findings, and conclusions of the investigation are presented along with planned procedures to assure future quality balloon film for NASA balloons.     

Analytical study on the inflated shape of a super pressure balloon covered with a diamond-shaped net

In the last two decades, extensive efforts have been made to develop a large super pressure balloon (SPB) capable of carrying heavy payloads for scientific observations of long durations. Due to recent achievements by the NASA Balloon Program Office, practical operations of large-scale lobed-pumpkin SPB will be realized in the near future. Meanwhile, the research team initiated the development of a lightweight SPB with an alternative design concept, in which the entire balloon is covered by a diamond-shaped net. In this work, the static structural response of the proposed SPB is analyzed by establishing a mathematical model to predict its inflated shape. This model is validated by comparing the generated results with those obtained from nonlinear finite element analysis. Excellent agreement between the analytical solutions and the corresponding finite element results was obtained. On the basis of the mathematical model, the inflated shape of the SPB is investigated and unique structural characteristics are deduced, i.e., the balloon inflates into a cylinder-like shape for a certain geometry of the cover net. This structural feature can be explained by considering the equilibrium of forces applied to the cover net.     

Scientific ballooning in India – Recent developments

Established in 1971, the National Balloon Facility operated by TIFR in Hyderabad, India, is a unique facility in the country, which provides a complete solution in scientific ballooning. It is also one of its kind in the world since it combines both, the in-house balloon production and a complete flight support for scientific ballooning. With a large team working through out the year to design, fabricate and launch scientific balloons, the Hyderabad Facility is a unique centre of expertise where the balloon design, research and development, the production and launch facilities are located under one roof. Our balloons are manufactured from 100% indigenous components. The mission specific balloon design, high reliability control and support instrumentation, in-house competence in tracking, telemetry, telecommand, data processing, system design and mechanics is its hallmark. In the past few years, we have executed a major programme of upgradation of different components of balloon production, telemetry and telecommand hardware and various support facilities. This paper focuses on our increased capability of balloon production of large sizes up to 780,000 m³ using Antrix film, development of high strength balloon load tapes with the breaking strength of 182 kg, and the recent introduction of S-band telemetry and a commandable timer cut-off unit in the flight hardware. A summary of the various flights conducted in recent years will be presented along with the plans for new facilities.     

Studies of thin film nonlinear viscoelasticity for superpressure balloons

In order to provide scientists with a stratospheric platform from which to conduct long duration research, a superpressure balloon is desired which will maintain a relatively constant volume for weeks at a time. The pumpkin shaped balloon has been developed by making use of the surface lobing to limit the circumferential stress and meridional tendons to carry the loads in the other direction. However, in order to prevent geometric instabilities during deployment and after pressurization, the design should eliminate as much excess material as possible while not exceeding the permissible stresses of the material. This paper will describe the behavior of the very thin membrane material selected for this application and the limits of the film in a biaxial state of stress. In addition, it is shown that the viscoelastic nature of the film will limit the stress by causing a reduced radius of curvature in the lobe of the pumpkin.     

Prototype design and testing of a Venus long duration,high altitude balloon

This paper describes the design, fabrication and testing of a full scale prototype balloon intended for long duration flight in the upper atmosphere of Venus. The balloon is 5.5 m in diameter and is designed to carry a 45 kg payload at an altitude of 55 km. The balloon material is a 180 g/m² multi-component laminate comprised of the following layers bonded together from outside to inside: aluminized Teflon film, aluminized Mylar film, Vectran fabric and a polyurethane coating. This construction provides the required balloon functional characteristics of low gas permeability, sulfuric acid resistance and high strength for superpressure operation. The design burst superpressure is 39,200 Pa which is predicted to be 3.3 times the worst case value expected during flight at the highest solar irradiance in the mission profile. The prototype is constructed from 16 gores with bi-taped seams employing a sulfuric acid resistant adhesive on the outside. Material coupon tests were performed to evaluate the optical and mechanical characteristics of the laminate. These were followed by full prototype tests for inflation, leakage and sulfuric acid tolerance. The results confirmed the suitability of this balloon design for use at Venus in a long duration mission. The various data are presented and the implications for mission design and operation are discussed.     

Nuclear-to-disk rotation curves and mass-to-luminosity ratio in galaxies

High-resolution nuclear-to-outer rotation curves for Sb, SBb, Sc, and SBc galaxies generally show a steep nuclear rise and flat rotation from the disk to the halo. The high-velocity central rotation indicates massive cores within bulges. Since this characteristic is common to most galaxies, the high-velocity central rotation cannot be due to a particular orientation of non-circular motion. Using these rotation curves, we derive the distributions of surface-mass density, and compare them directly with observed surface-luminosity distributions. The mass-to-luminosity ratio (M/L) increases from the outer bulge to the disk, indicating that the outer disk is already dominated by dark-mass. It, then, increases more rapidly toward the outer optical edge, indicating the massive halo. In the central regions of some galaxies, the M/L increases steeply toward the nucleus, reaching a value an order of magnitude greater in the central 100 pc region than that in the disk, which may indicate a massive core of radius ∼ 100 parsecs and mass of ∼ 10⁹ M_⊙. The core may be an object linking a bulge and a black hole at the nucleus.     

Performance simulation of high altitude scientific balloons

The design and operation of a high altitude scientific balloon requires adequate knowledge of the thermal characteristics of the balloon to make it safe and reliable. The thermal models and dynamic models of altitude scientific balloons are established in this paper. Based on the models, a simulation program is developed. The thermal performances of a super pressure balloon are simulated. The influence of film radiation property and clouds on balloon thermal behaviors is discussed in detail. The results are helpful for the design and operate of safe and reliable high altitude scientific balloons.     

Launching of a 500,000 cubic meter balloon with the semi-dynamic launching method

Launching a large balloon in a limited launching field is a long standing problem in Japan. The largest balloon ever launched successfully was 200,000 m³ in volume. It was launched in 1973. A larger balloon with a volume of 500,000 m³ was tried later, but it burst during the ascending phase. For launching balloons with a large lift exceeding 500 kg, the conventional static launching method had the most serious problem with possible damage to the polyethylene film of the balloon caused by the holding mechanism. After that, we had developed a new static launching method to launch balloons with a total lift of 1.0 ton. For launching a large balloon with a total lift above 1.5 ton, the new static launching method had a weak point in that if there was an air bubble in the folded part of the balloon, it may puncture the balloon as it is pushed by a spool. To avoid this problem, we developed a semi-dynamic launching method in 1999 using a launcher fixed to the ground leaving a freedom of rotation around the vertical axis. We have launched some balloons using the method and have gradually enriched our experience in using this system.In 2003, we successfully launched a balloon with a volume of 500,000 m³ by using the method. This balloon was made of polyethylene films with a thickness of 20 μm and it is the largest balloon ever launched in Japan.