Upstream Ion Cyclotron Waves at Venus and Mars

The occurrence of waves generated by pick-up of planetary neutrals by the solar wind around unmagnetized planets is an important indicator for the composition and evolution of planetary atmospheres. For Venus and Mars, long-term observations of the upstream magnetic field are now available and proton cyclotron waves have been reported by several spacecraft. Observations of these left-hand polarized waves at the local proton cyclotron frequency in the spacecraft frame are reviewed for their specific properties, generation mechanisms and consequences for the planetary exosphere. Comparison of the reported observations leads to a similar general wave occurrence at both planets, at comparable locations with respect to the planet. However, the waves at Mars are observed more frequently and for long durations of several hours; the cyclotron wave properties are more pronounced, with larger amplitudes, stronger left-hand polarization and higher coherence than at Venus. The geometrical configuration of the interplanetary magnetic field with respect to the solar wind velocity and the relative density of upstream pick-up protons to the background plasma are important parameters for wave generation. At Venus, where the relative exospheric pick-up ion density is low, wave generation was found to mainly take place under stable and quasi-parallel conditions of the magnetic field and the solar wind velocity. This is in agreement with theory, which predicts fast wave growth from the ion/ion beam instability under quasi-parallel conditions already for low relative pick-up ion density. At Mars, where the relative exospheric pick-up ion density is higher, upstream wave generation may also take place under stable conditions when the solar wind velocity and magnetic field are quasi-perpendicular. At both planets, the altitudes where upstream proton cyclotron waves were observed (8 Venus and 11 Mars radii) are comparable in terms of the bow shock nose distance of the planet, i.e. in terms of the size of the solar wind-planetary atmosphere interaction region. In summary, the upstream proton cyclotron wave observations demonstrate the strong similarity in the interaction of the outer exosphere of these unmagnetized planets with the solar wind upstream of the planetary bow shock.     

Inversion of Meteor Rayleigh Waves on Earth and Modeling of Air Coupled Rayleigh Waves on Mars

Meteor impacts and/or meteor events generate body and surface seismic waves on the surface of a planet. When meteoroids burst in the atmosphere, they generate shock waves that subsequently convert into acoustic waves in the atmosphere and seismic waves in the ground. This effect can be modeled as the amplitude of Rayleigh and other Spheroidal modes excitation, due to atmospheric/ground coupling effects.First, an inversion of the seismic source of Chelyabinsk superbolide is performed. We develop an approach in order to model a line source in the atmosphere, corresponding to the consecutive generation of shock waves by the interaction with the atmosphere. The model is based on the known trajectory. We calculate the synthetic seismograms of Rayleigh waves associated with the event by the summation of normal modes of a model of the solid part and the atmosphere of the planet. Through an inversion technique based on singular value decomposition, we perform a full Rayleigh wave inversion and we provide solutions for the moment magnitude.SEIS will likely detect seismic waves generated by impacts and the later might be further located by remote sensing differential processing. In the case of Mars, we use the same method to obtain waveforms associated with impacts on the planetary surface or in low altitudes in the Martian atmosphere. We show that the contribution of the fundamental spheroidal solid mode is dominating the waveforms, compared to that of the first two overtones. We perform an amplitude comparison and we show that small impactors (diameter of 0.5 to 2 m), can be detected by the SEIS VBB seismometer of InSight mission, even in short epicentral distances, in the higher frequencies of the Rayleigh waves. We perform an analysis based on impact rate estimations and we calculate the number of detectable events of 1 meter diameter meteor impacts to be 6.7 to 13.4 per 1 Martian year for a \(Q=500\).     

Bow Shock and Upstream Phenomena at Mars

Mars Global Surveyor is the sixth spacecraft to return measurements of the Martian bow shock. The earlier missions were Mariner 4 (1964), Mars 2 and 3 (1972), Mars 5 (1975) and Phobos 2 (1989) (see reviews by Gringauz, 1981; Slavin and Holzer, 1982; Russell, 1985; Vaisberg, 1992a,b; Zakharov, 1992). Previous investigations of planetary bow shocks have established that their position, shape and jump conditions are functions of the upstream flow parameters and the nature of the solar wind — planet interaction (Spreiter and Stahara, 1980; Slavin et al., 1983; Russell, 1985). At Mars, however, the exact nature of the solar wind interaction was elusive due to the lack of low altitude plasma and magnetic field measurements (e.g., Axford, 1991). In fact our knowledge of the nature of the interaction of Mars with the solar wind was incomplete until the arrival of MGS and the acquisition of close-in magnetic field data (Acuña et al., 1998). As detailed by a series of review papers in this monograph, the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) mission has now shown that the Mars environment is very complex with strong, highly structured crustal magnetic remnants in the southern hemisphere, while the northern hemisphere experiences the direct impingement of solar wind plasma. This review paper first presents a survey of the observations on the Martian bow shock and the upstream phenomena in the light of results from all the missions to date. It also discusses the kinetic properties of the Martian bow shock compared to the predictions of simulations studies. Then it examines the current status of understanding of these phenomena, including the possible sources of upstream low-frequency waves and the interpretations of localized disturbances in the upstream solar wind around Mars. Finally, it briefly discusses the open issues and questions that require further study.     

JF-12激波风洞在火星进入环境下的运行特性

火星探测是目前国际深空探测的热点,而火星着陆是火星探测的关键技术之一,火星着陆器发展中面临的一个严峻的挑战是其气动环境远远不同于地球大气的空气。然而,现阶段大多数地面试验设备都是以空气为试验气体来设计的,而不是火星大气的CO₂。本文利用高温热化学反应流动数值计算技术,对JF-12反向爆轰驱动激波风洞在火星进入环境下（主要气体成分是CO₂）的运行特性进行了计算模拟,通过调整激波管中驱动/被驱动气体的初始参数和高/低压段的截面积比,来模拟其中的波系产生、传播过程以及反射激波与接触面的相互作用机制。研究发现,相同情况下驱动CO₂的缝合激波马赫数要明显高于空气,通过减小驱动气体的声速和低压段的直径,可以在驱动CO₂时获得驻室压力稳定的试验气体。     

On the Detectability and Use of Normal Modes for Determining Interior Structure of Mars

The InSight mission to Mars is well underway and will be the first mission to acquire seismic data from a planet other than Earth. In order to maximise the science return of the InSight data, a multifaceted approach will be needed that seeks to investigate the seismic data from a series of different frequency windows, including body waves, surface waves, and normal modes. Here, we present a methodology based on globally-averaged models that employs the long-period information encoded in the seismic data by looking for fundamental-mode spheroidal oscillations. From a preliminary analysis of the expected signal-to-noise ratio, we find that normal modes should be detectable during nighttime in the frequency range 5–15 mHz. For improved picking of (fundamental) normal modes, we show first that those are equally spaced between 5–15 mHz and then show how this spectral spacing, obtained through autocorrelation of the Fourier-transformed time series can be further employed to select normal mode peaks more consistently. Based on this set of normal-mode spectral frequencies, we proceed to show how this data set can be inverted for globally-averaged models of interior structure (to a depth of \(\sim 250~\mbox{km}\)), while simultaneously using the resultant synthetically-approximated normal mode peaks to verify the initial peak selection. This procedure can be applied iteratively to produce a “cleaned-up” set of spectral peaks that are ultimately inverted for a “final” interior-structure model. To investigate the effect of three-dimensional (3D) structure on normal mode spectra, we constructed a 3D model of Mars that includes variations in surface and Moho topography and lateral variations in mantle structure and employed this model to compute full 3D waveforms. The resultant time series are converted to spectra and the inter-station variation hereof is compared to the variation in spectra computed using different 1D models. The comparison shows that 3D effects are less significant than the variation incurred by the difference in radial models, which suggests that our 1D approach represents an adequate approximation of the global average structure of Mars.     

超音速多圆弧(MCA)叶型叶珊的研究

本文提出了含脱体激波的叶栅有旋超音速流场的特征线起始线计算方法。采用激波嵌入法解完全的欧拉方程,计算了含脱体激波的多圆弧叶栅的超音速进口流场。本文发展了一种将超音速流场计算与亚音速扩散损失计算的尾迹法相关联的计算超音速叶栅损失的方法,可分别确定激波损失和亚音速扩散损失。      

层状介质平面交界裂纹的弹性波（P波和SV波）散射研究

 本文采用Fourier积分变换,将层状介质的弹性波传递矩阵法推广到含有平面交界裂纹层状介质的弹性渡散射问题,进而把散射问题转化为求解矩阵形式的对偶积分方程。作为特例,文中给出单一弹性层与半空间平面交界裂纹的弹性波散射远场模式,并计算几组不同材料组合情形下的远场模式幅频特性曲线,其数值结果表明幅频特性曲线有共振峰存在。     

The Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) for the Mars 2001 Odyssey Mission

The Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) on 2001 Mars Odyssey will investigate the surface mineralogy and physical properties of Mars using multi-spectral thermal-infrared images in nine wavelengths centered from 6.8 to 14.9 μm, and visible/near-infrared images in five bands centered from 0.42 to 0.86 μm. THEMIS will map the entire planet in both day and night multi-spectral infrared images at 100-m per pixel resolution, 60% of the planet in one-band visible images at 18-m per pixel, and several percent of the planet in 5-band visible color. Most geologic materials, including carbonates, silicates, sulfates, phosphates, and hydroxides have strong fundamental vibrational absorption bands in the thermal-infrared spectral region that provide diagnostic information on mineral composition. The ability to identify a wide range of minerals allows key aqueous minerals, such as carbonates and hydrothermal silica, to be placed into their proper geologic context. The specific objectives of this investigation are to: (1) determine the mineralogy and petrology of localized deposits associated with hydrothermal or sub-aqueous environments, and to identify future landing sites likely to represent these environments; (2) search for thermal anomalies associated with active sub-surface hydrothermal systems; (3) study small-scale geologic processes and landing site characteristics using morphologic and thermophysical properties; and (4) investigate polar cap processes at all seasons. THEMIS follows the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) and Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) experiments, providing substantially higher spatial resolution IR multi-spectral images to complement TES hyperspectral (143-band) global mapping, and regional visible imaging at scales intermediate between the Viking and MOC cameras. The THEMIS uses an uncooled microbolometer detector array for the IR focal plane. The optics consists of all-reflective, three-mirror anastigmat telescope with a 12-cm effective aperture and a speed of f/1.6. The IR and visible cameras share the optics and housing, but have independent power and data interfaces to the spacecraft. The IR focal plane has 320 cross-track pixels and 240 down-track pixels covered by 10 ～1-μm-bandwidth strip filters in nine different wavelengths. The visible camera has a 1024×1024 pixel array with 5 filters. The instrument weighs 11.2 kg, is 29 cm by 37 cm by 55 cm in size, and consumes an orbital average power of 14 W.     

X-Rays From Mars

X-rays from Mars were first detected in July 2001 with the satellite Chandra. The main source of this radiation was fluorescent scattering of solar X-rays in its upper atmosphere. In addition, the presence of an extended X-ray halo was indicated, probably resulting from charge exchange interactions between highly charged heavy ions in the solar wind and neutrals in the Martian exosphere. The statistical significance of the X-ray halo, however, was very low. In November 2003, Mars was observed again in X-rays, this time with the satellite XMM-Newton. This observation, characterized by a considerably higher sensitivity, confirmed the presence of the X-ray halo and proved that charge exchange is indeed the origin of the emission. This was the first definite detection of charge exchange induced X-ray emission from the exosphere of another planet. Previously, this kind of emission had been detected from comets (which are largely exospheres) and from the terrestrial exosphere. Because charge exchange interactions between atmospheric constituents and solar wind ions are considered as an important nonthermal escape mechanism, probably responsible for a significant loss of the Martian atmosphere, X-ray observations may lead to a better understanding of the present state of the Martian atmosphere and its evolution. X-ray images of the Martian exosphere in specific emission lines exhibited a highly anisotropic morphology, varying with individual ions and ionization states. With its capability to trace the X-ray emission out to at least 8 Mars radii, XMM-Newton can explore exospheric regions far beyond those that have been observationally explored to date. Thus, X-ray observations provide a novel method for studying processes in the Martian exosphere on a global scale.     

Mars Crustal Magnetism

Mars lacks a detectable magnetic field of global scale, but boasts a rich spectrum of magnetic fields at smaller spatial scales attributed to the spatial variation of remanent magnetism in the crust. On average the Mars crust is 10 times more intensely magnetized than that of the Earth. It appears likely that the Mars crust acquired its remanence in the first few hundred million years of evolution when an active dynamo sustained an intense global field. An early dynamo era, ending in the Noachian, or earliest period of Mars chronology, would likely be driven by thermal convection in an early, hot, fluid core. If crustal remanence was acquired later in Mars history, a dynamo driven by chemical convection associated with the solidification of an inner core is likely. Thermal evolution models cannot yet distinguish between these two possibilities. The magnetic record contains a wealth of information on the thermal evolution of Mars and the Mars dynamo, but we have just begun to decipher its message.     

Thermospheric gravity waves: Observations and interpretation using the transfer function model (TFM)

Gravity waves are prominent in the polar region of the terrestiral thermosphere, and can be excited by perturbations in Joule heating and Lorents force due to magnetospheric processes. We show observations from the Dynamics Explorer-2 satellite to illustrate the complexity of the phenomenon and review the transfer function model (TFM) which has guided our interpretation. On a statistical basis, the observed atmospheric perturbations decrease from the poles toward the equator and tend to correlate with the magnetic activity index, Ap, although individual measurements indicate that the magnetic index is often a poor measure of gravity wave excitation. The theoretical models devised to describe gravity waves are multifaceted. On one end are fully analytical, linear models which are based on the work of Hines. On the other end are fully numerical, thermospheric general circulation models (TGCMs) which incorporate non-linear processes and wave mean flow interactions. The transfer function model (TFM) discussed in this paper is between these two approaches. It is less restrictive than the analytical approach and relates the global propagation of gravity waves to their excitation. Compared with TGCMs, the TFM is simplified by its linear approximation; but it is not limited in spatial and temporal resolution, and the TFM describes the wave propagation through the lower atmosphere. Moreover, the TFM is semianalytical which helps in delineating the wave components. Using expansions in terms of spherical harmonics and Fourier components, the transfer function is obtained from numerical height integration. This is time consuming computationally but needs to be done only once. Once such a transfer function is computed, the wave response to arbitrary source distributions on the globe can then be constructed in very short order. In this review, we discuss some numerical experiments performed with the TFM, to study the various wave components excited in the auroral regions which propagate through the thermosphere and lower atmosphere, and to elucidate the properties of realistic source geometries. The model is applied to the interpretation of satellite measurements. Gravity waves observed in the thermosphere of Venus are also discussed.     

The Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-3) for the Mars Express Mission

The general scientific objective of the ASPERA-3 experiment is to study the solar wind – atmosphere interaction and to characterize the plasma and neutral gas environment with within the space near Mars through the use of energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging and measuring local ion and electron plasma. The ASPERA-3 instrument comprises four sensors: two ENA sensors, one electron spectrometer, and one ion spectrometer. The Neutral Particle Imager (NPI) provides measurements of the integral ENA flux (0.1–60 keV) with no mass and energy resolution, but high angular resolution. The measurement principle is based on registering products (secondary ions, sputtered neutrals, reflected neutrals) of the ENA interaction with a graphite-coated surface. The Neutral Particle Detector (NPD) provides measurements of the ENA flux, resolving velocity (the hydrogen energy range is 0.1–10 keV) and mass (H and O) with a coarse angular resolution. The measurement principle is based on the surface reflection technique. The Electron Spectrometer (ELS) is a standard top-hat electrostatic analyzer in a very compact design which covers the energy range 0.01–20 keV. These three sensors are located on a scanning platform which provides scanning through 180^∘ of rotation. The instrument also contains an ion mass analyzer (IMA). Mechanically IMA is a separate unit connected by a cable to the ASPERA-3 main unit. IMA provides ion measurements in the energy range 0.01–36 keV/charge for the main ion components H⁺, He⁺⁺, He⁺, O⁺, and the group of molecular ions 20–80 amu/q. ASPERA-3 also includes its own DC/DC converters and digital processing unit (DPU).     

Mars Global Surveyor Observations of Solar Wind Magnetic Field Draping Around Mars

We examine the magnetic field in the martian magnetosheath due to solar wind draping. Mars Global Surveyor provided 3-D vector magnetic field measurements at a large range of altitudes, local times, and solar zenith angles as the spacecraft orbit evolved. We choose orbits with very clean signatures of draping to establish the nominal morphology of the magnetic field lines at local times of near-subsolar and near-terminator. Next, using a compilation of data from Mars Global Surveyor, we determine the average magnetic field morphology in the martian magnetosheath due to the solar wind interaction. The topology of the field is as expected from previous observations and predictions. The magnetic field magnitude peaks at low altitude and noon magnetic local time and decreases away from that point. The magnetic field has an inclination from the local horizontal of 5.6° on average in the dayside magnetosheath and 12.5° on the nightside. The inclination angle is closest to zero at noon magnetic local time and low altitude. It increases both upward and to later local times. The magnetic field in the induced magnetotail flares out from the Mars—Sun direction by 21°. Finally, we compare the observations to gasdynamic model predictions and find that the shocked solar wind flow in the martian magnetosheath can be treated as a gasdynamic flow with the magnetic pileup boundary as the inner boundary to the flow.     

Radar observations of Mars

Radar observations in the past were used to investigate the astronomical properties of the planet and its reflectivity in radar frequencies. Because of the difficulties in signal detection and processing due to the low level of return signal, the data were published only in the form of Doppler spectrograms. In view of the increasing interest in Mars and the practicability of missions to Mars this paper uses the published data to evaluate the angular behavior of the radar backscattering characteristics of Mars; a required information for the design of radar equipment of spacecrafts. In addition, results of past observations are summarized, analyzed and discussed in terms of a general interpretation of the Martian surface. It is found that the generally accepted suggestion that Mars is a relatively smooth planet, smoother than the Moon, is confirmed by most of the results, but not all observations agree with this hypothesis. A surface model of relief and composition based on radar information in conjunction with other observations is reviewed. The processing methods of radar return signals are compared for a better understanding of the handling of the Doppler spectrogram, a form which is most widely used for the presentation of processed data.An extensive bibliography of available papers and reports relevant to radar observations and the surface and lower atmosphere of Mars is included. The literature is concerned mainly with post-Mariner IV experiment, the mission which changed considerably many conceptions of Mars.     

Mars Express and MARSIS

Space Science Reviews - The Mars Express mission to be launched in 2003 will provide high resolution measurements of the Martian atmosphere and ionosphere. The neutral density, temperature, and...     

Planned Products of the Mars Structure Service for the InSight Mission to Mars

Space Science Reviews - The InSight lander will deliver geophysical instruments to Mars in 2018, including seismometers installed directly on the surface (Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure,...     

2001 Mars Odyssey Mission Summary

The 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, now in orbit at Mars, will observe the Martian surface at infrared and visible wavelengths to determine surface mineralogy and morphology, acquire global gamma ray and neutron observations for a full Martian year, and study the Mars radiation environment from orbit. The science objectives of this mission are to: (1) globally map the elemental composition of the surface, (2) determine the abundance of hydrogen in the shallow subsurface, (3) acquire high spatial and spectral resolution images of the surface mineralogy, (4) provide information on the morphology of the surface, and (5) characterize the Martian near-space radiation environment as related to radiation-induced risk to human explorers. To accomplish these objectives, the 2001 Mars Odyssey science payload includes a Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS), a multi-spectral Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and a radiation detector, the Martian Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE). THEMIS and MARIE are mounted on the spacecraft with THEMIS pointed at nadir. GRS is a suite of three instruments: a Gamma Subsystem (GSS), a Neutron Spectrometer (NS) and a High-Energy Neutron Detector (HEND). The HEND and NS instruments are mounted on the spacecraft body while the GSS is on a 6-m boom. Some science data were collected during the cruise and aerobraking phases of the mission before the prime mission started. THEMIS acquired infrared and visible images of the Earth-Moon system and of the southern hemisphere of Mars. MARIE monitored the radiation environment during cruise. The GRS collected calibration data during cruise and aerobraking. Early GRS observations in Mars orbit indicated a hydrogen-rich layer in the upper meter of the subsurface in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, atmospheric densities, scale heights, temperatures, and pressures were observed by spacecraft accelerometers during aerobraking as the spacecraft skimmed the upper portions of the Martian atmosphere. This provided the first in-situ evidence of winter polar warming in the Mars upper atmosphere. The prime mission for 2001 Mars Odyssey began in February 2002 and will continue until August 2004. During this prime mission, the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will also provide radio relays for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European landers in early 2004. Science data from 2001 Mars Odyssey instruments will be provided to the science community via NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). The first PDS release of Odyssey data was in October 2002; subsequent releases occur every 3 months.     

Mars navigation system utilizes GPS

Tasks envisioned for future generation Mars rovers - sample collection, area survey, resource mining, habitat construction, etc. - will require greatly enhanced navigational capabilities over those possessed by the Mars Sojourner rover. Many of these tasks will involve cooperative efforts by multiple rovers and other agents, adding further requirements both for accuracy and commonality between users. This paper presents a new navigation system a "Self-Calibrating Pseudolite Array" (SCPA) that can provide centimeter-level, drift-free localization to multiple rovers within a local area by utilizing GPS-based transceivers deployed in a ground-based array. Such a system of localized beacons can replace or augment a system based on orbiting satellite transmitters, and is capable of fully autonomous operations and calibration. This paper describes the prototype SCPA developed at Stanford to demonstrate these capabilities and then presents results from a set of field trials performed at NASA Ames Research Center. These experiments, which utilize the K9 Mars rover research platform, validate both the navigation and self-calibration capabilities of the system. By carrying an on-board GPS transceiver, K9 was successfully able to calibrate the system using no a priori position information and localized the pseudolite beacons to under 5 cm RMS.