Competing for a future in space: NASA and the Department of Defense

Although the 1958 Space Act stressed the civilian nature of the US space programme, the military space budget has grown to over twice the size of NASA's. Military influence on US space policy has grown accordingly. NASA has failed in articulating a sense of direction and purpose for the civilian space programme justifying sustained and adequate support. What matters most for a reinvigorated NASA is the level of commitment the nation is prepared to make, and in today's political climate greater spending on a civilian space programme would be unpopular. The USA looks likely to continue to fall behind in the international competition for space leadership.     

The EU should freeze its military ambitions in space

In a clear departure from previous policies and activities, the European Union, together with the European Space Agency, have embarked on a series of military and security related space activities in recent years, often under the umbrella of largely civilian programmes. Such dual-use space programmes not only silently introduce military use of space in the context of the EU, they are to become an integral and essential part of the EU’s growing military ambitions. While these ambitions are opposed by large sections of European society, the EU has made milspace projects a top priority, with no international answer yet to the real and growing risks of military rivalry in space.     

A European military space community: Reality or dream?

Europe is faced with several essential policy decisions with regard to the exploitation of space technology. Important issues are: the relations between civilian and military uses of outer space, employment opportunities, industrial and commercial interests, European security and international stability, regional and international cooperation. Concerted action is required for political reasons and in order to achieve the necessary scientific, technological and economic critical masses. Another major policy issue is, therefore, whether Europe should expand its space venture in the framework of a European military space community as proposed by France, through national or bilateral programmes, by participating in the US SDI research, or through NATO, the Independent European Programme Group, the Western European Union, or the European Space Agency.     

Canada's early space policy development 1958–1974

In the absence of a mature body of literature on the origins and evolution of the Canadian space program, recent official publications have arbitrarily chosen 1974, the year that Canada's civilian space policy was ratified in the House of Commons, as the popular date of origin. However, this start date ignores several significant policy documents that influenced Canada's space program development prior to that year. This article examines policy that shaped Canada's space program during the ‘golden age’ of space exploration (1958–1974), and will demonstrate that the true origins of the Canadian space program date back much earlier that the current perception.     

How shall we live in space? Culture, law and ethics in spacefaring society

The US civilian space program is focused on planning for a new round of human missions beyond Earth orbit, to realize a ‘vision’ for exploration articulated by President George W. Bush. It is important to examine this ‘vision’ in the broader context of the global enterprise of 21st century space exploration. How will extending a human presence into the Solar System affect terrestrial society and culture? What legal, ethical and other value systems should govern human activities in space? This paper will describe the current environment for space policy making and possible frameworks for future space law, ethics and culture. It also proposes establishment of a World Space Conference to aid deliberations on the above.     

俄罗斯的空间军事能力:1992年～2001年

在过去的10年间,俄罗斯的各种军用卫星的发射率大幅度降低,甚至出现了没有照相侦察卫星在轨的特殊时期。俄罗斯是否由于财政状况,无法维持其军事空间能力呢?还是另有其他原因呢?文章列举了在1992～2001年间,俄罗斯的军用卫星发射情况,分析了其空间计划的前景。     

Space technology as a factor of international stabilization and destabilization

Control of space-related assets represents a factor of civilian as well as military power. If countries seek unilateral access to space technology for the purpose of aggression against others, international peace and stability are at risk. The author discusses the role of the non-proliferation regime for space technology within an integrated strategy for the promotion of international security and development. He suggests that under certain conditions, allowing the further spread of the use of space-based capabilities can contribute to the stabilization of regional conflict situations. However, certain safeguards, controls and restraints should be required from potential new space powers.     

Security implications of remote sensing

Major technical advances in remote sensing have developed sophisticated systems with both extensive military and civilian applications. Not only the USA and USSR, but a growing number of other countries such as China, France, India and Japan are actively engaged in remote-sensing R&D. This article reviews the capabilities of civilian satellite technologies and programmes of various nations, and examines the implications for national and international security. Many states are concerned about the commercial availability of data on their economic resources and national security-related activities. A particular problem is the possible misinterpretation of remotely-sensed data.     

European space research in support of international partnership

The envisaged future space research programmes, whether in the field of space exploration or Earth observation are becoming more and more technically complicated and so costly that a single nation can hardly afford to realize them. Major non-European space-faring nations, China and India will progressively play an important role besides US, Russia and Japan. The Space Advisory Group of the European Commission recommended that the European Commission supports within Horizon 2020 a comprehensive Robotic Mars-Exploration Programme under European leadership that should become an essential element of a coordinated international space research programme. The International Space Station (ISS) experience shows that cooperative space programmes build links between industries and laboratories from around the world, which then further develop in non-space related activities, with positive impact on the economy and scientific research. Strategies need to be developed to mitigate the gradual increasing risks incurred by climate change. In order to lower their entry barrier to engage in space emerging and developing space nations need to be included in cooperative space programmes. We present the recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission concerning Europe's participation to global space endeavours.     

变构型跨介质飞行器发展及关键技术分析

变构型跨介质飞行器就是既能满足在水下航行又能满足在空中飞行要求的飞行器,在具备水下航行隐蔽特性的同时也满足在空中飞行的机动性和灵活性要求。变构型跨介质飞行器可以通过改变其翼型结构适用于空气中与水中航行。该飞行器结合了无人机和潜艇的优势,可以实现多次出入水跨介质作业,在军事领域应用于战场关键信息侦察、突防和精确打击,在民用领域应用于海上灾难救援、深海地质探测等。从军事和民用方面分析了变构型跨介质飞行器的优势及用途,总结了国内外变构型跨介质飞行器发展现状,针对性地梳理了关键技术和难点问题,在此基础上提出了技术发展建议,为后续跨介质飞行器研究工作提供支撑。     

The eagle eyes the dragon in space—A critique

China's space policy and its purpose have become an increasingly contentious subject. This paper critically examines the claims, made by Ashley Tellis, among others, that China has a space strategy decided and coordinated by the Chinese military and dedicated to defeating superior US power locally in an asymmetrical war, and that it is this military space strategy that drives China's single-minded pursuit of space science and technology and the development of China's space programme. To do so, the paper conducts two investigations: into the declining role of the Chinese military in China's foreign and security policy making and its limited influence in formulating China's grand strategy; and the other into the contingent history of China's two space programs, Shenzhou and Chang'e, which have largely been driven by civilian scientist communities, rather than the military. In so doing, I argue that the claims of China's ‘military space strategy’ are over-imaginative and serve a particular political purpose. The social imaginary of a threatening China produced by the US strategic gaze at China in space, I further argue, has dangerous policy implications.     

The next giant leap in space

Over the past year, the United Nations Association of the USA (UNA) has conducted a massive programme aimed at involving US citizens directly in shaping US space policy. From early January to mid-May of 1986, thousands of people joined forces in some 90 cities and towns across the USA to examine the prospects for international cooperation and the impact of existing and potential military space activities on civilian cooperation.     

The Moon and Mars : Role and impacts for Europe

Interest in manned interplanetary exploration and colonization has been reviving for some time. Despite being presently involved in the three main programmes Ariane 5, Hermes and Columbus, Europe should not stay out of Moon/Mars-related initiatives. This paper summarizes the major results of a study on the role Europe could play in such a context and the impacts this could have on its space policy.     

Making space for history

This report summarizes the presentations given at the third annual British Rocketry Oral-History Project, held in Surrey, UK in April 2001. A wide range of papers was given (to an equally diverse audience), covering past and present developments in air and space, both military and civilian. Many of the scientists and engineers who had worked on specific projects were present and their personal reminiscences enlivened proceedings. The importance of history in understanding not only the past but also the future of space efforts was emphasized.     

Will China become a military space superpower?

China's ambitious space program was born in extremely poor national conditions in 1956. By 15 October 2003, with the successful return of the Shenzhou-4 manned space flight, it had developed dramatically. While this flight is a milestone in China's space capabilities, the Shenzhou-4 mission should be considered not as an end, but as the entry ticket to the space power club of the USA and Russia. China may now be a space power, but it is not yet a military space superpower in the way of the latter two countries. This paper investigates whether China will become a military space superpower by reviewing the development of its space program. It examines Chinese military space capabilities in terms of their military space potential, and discusses the political, military and economic implications of this issue. Finally, the paper suggests that China should continue to take the road to openness, focusing on commercial and economic efforts. This will be an alternative direction in which the country can consider exactly what space capabilities it needs in order to continue its economic development.     

Fostering links between environmental and space exploration: the Earth and Space Foundation

The links between Earth and space exploration occur across a broad spectrum, from the use of satellite technology to support environmental monitoring and habitat protection to the study of extreme environments on Earth to prepare for the exploration of other planets. Taking the view that Earth and space exploration are part of a mutually beneficial continuum is in contrast to the more traditionally segregated view of these areas of activity. In its most polarized manifestation, space exploration is regarded as a waste of money, distracting from solving problems here at home, while environmental research is seen to be introspective, distracting from expansive visions of exploring the frontier of space. The Earth and Space Foundation was established in 1994 to help further mutually beneficial links by funding innovative field projects around the world that work at the broad interface between environmental and space sciences, thus encouraging the two communities to work together to solve the challenges facing society. This paper describes the work of the foundation and the philosophy behind its programmes.     

Israel's space program as a national asset

This article seeks to illuminate the implications of a small state's entry into the realm of space for its national security by inquiring into the space policy of the State of Israel. Israel's technological infrastructure in space boosts Israel's technological advantage, thereby allowing it to enhance military capabilities, as well as contributing in a number of non-military fields. It increases the quality of human resources, encourages scientific research, fortifies the economy, nurtures civilian and defense industries and ultimately contributes to the building of an advanced, highly developed society. Hence, a strong, state-of-the-art, Israeli space program is highly important to its national security in a wider sense.     

Could civil satellites monitor nuclear tests?

As the momentum for further cuts in nuclear weapons grows and fears of nuclear proliferation increase, the need to monitor nuclear testing is becoming more pressing. While military observation satellites are already used for this purpose, this article argues that greater independence and impartiality could be achieved through the use of civilian remote sensing satellites, whose images could be made available to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). How images from space are processed and interpreted is described, as is how civil satellites might be used to verify a comprehensive test ban treaty. Four options open to the IAEA for utilizing remotely sensed images are discussed.     

A knowledge-based architecture for planning military intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance

One of the most important objectives of military intelligence is to warn of potential or immediate threats. This paper investigates several related research issues. First, what kinds of data can military space provide, with which to watch, monitor, and analyze hostile forces? Second, what operational mechanisms can work to integrate military intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance? Third, how can a system architecture in support of intelligence operations be implemented for decision support and knowledge management? The paper investigates how research work can contribute a system concept with military space applications to national defense and security. It investigates the use of a geographical information system as a system platform for integrating the spatial database, attribute database, rule base, case base and knowledge repository as a knowledge-based decision support system. A hypothetical case showing how the system is implemented is presented.     

Selling space exploration luxury or necessity?

The exploration of space can be seen as contributing to both technological innovation and national pride. But is it worth the expense - and who should pay? Anthony Gottlieb discusses some of the issues raised at a conference held in March 1988 at Ditchley Park, Oxon, UK.