Efficacy of Doppler ultrasound [correction of utrasound] for screening symptoms of decompression sickness during simulated extravehicular activities

Doppler ultrasound is frequently used for monitoring circulating microbubbles during decompression to assess the symptoms of Decompression Sickness (DCS). This analysis was carried out to evaluate its effectiveness for screening symptoms of DCS during simulated extravehicular activities (EVA). The information from various hypobaric chamber studies carried out at the NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX was used in this analysis (n = 516). The circulating microbubbles were detected in the precordial area in 42% (218/516), and symptoms were reported in 16% (81/516) of these exposures. The accuracy of Doppler-detectable bubbles (Spencer grades) on all symptoms of DCS was examined by calculating measures of sensitivity and specificity. The efficacy of Doppler as a screening device was examined by calculating their positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV). The results of these analyses indicated that the sensitivity of Doppler decreased, and the PPV increased with higher Spencer grades. However, the likelihood of detecting true negative cases (NPV) was consistently higher with all bubble grades. Due to the high false-positive rate and low prior probabilities of the risk of DCS, Doppler was found to be more useful to identify those who did not develop DCS, than to detect positive cases of DCS in the simulated EVA exposures.     

Fatty acid composition of plasma lipids and erythrocyte membranes during simulated extravehicular activity

Ten subjects (from 27 to 41 years) have been participated in 32 experiments. They were decompressed from ground level to 40-35 kPa in altitude chamber when breathed 100% oxygen by mask and performed repeated cycles of exercises (3.0 Kcal/min). The intervals between decompressions were 3-5 days. Plasma lipid and erythrocyte membrane fatty acid composition was evaluated in the fasting venous blood before and immediately after hypobaric exposure. There were 7 cases decompression sickness (DCS). Venous gas bubbles (GB) were detected in 27 cases (84.4%). Any significant changes in the fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes and plasma didn't practically induce after the first decompression. However, by the beginning of the second decompression the total lipid level in erythrocyte membranes decreased from 54.6 mg% to 40.4 mg% in group with DCS symptoms and from 51.2 mg% to 35.2 mg% (p<0.05) without DCS symptoms. In group with DCS symptoms a tendency to increased level of saturated fatty acids in erythrocyte membranes (16:0, 18:0), the level of the polyunsaturated linoleic fatty acid (18:2) and arachidonic acid (20:4) tended to be decreased by the beginning of the second decompression. Insignificant changes in blood plasma fatty acid composition was observed in both groups. The obtained biochemical data that indicated the simulated extravehicular activity (EVA) condition is accompanied by the certain changes in the blood lipid metabolism, structural and functional state of erythrocyte membranes, which are reversible. The most pronounced changes are found in subjects with DCS symptoms.     

The feasibility of Doppler monitoring during EVA

During extravehicular activities (EVA) outside the spacecraft, astronauts have to work under reduced pressure in a space suit. This pressure reduction induces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) by the formation of gas bubbles from excess nitrogen dissolved in the organism by breathing air at normal pressure. Under laboratory conditions the gas bubbles moving in the blood stream can be detected by the non-invasive ultrasonic Doppler method. By early detection of excessive bubble formation the development of DCS symptoms may be prevented by early application of preventative measures. The method could also be useful when applied in the space suit in order to compare the results of laboratory tests with operational results, because there is a discrepancy according to the DCS risk of laboratory experiments and actual EVA missions, where no symptoms have been reported yet. A prototype Doppler sensor has been developed and implemented in the Russian Orlan suit. To investigate the feasibility of this method under simulated space conditions, the equipment has been used in a series of 12 thermovacuum chamber tests with suited subjects, where intravenous bubble formation was compared to unsuited control experiments. In more than 50% of the suited tests good Doppler recordings could be achieved. In some cases with unsatisfying results the signal could be improved by breathholding. Although the results do not yet allow any conclusion about a possible difference between suited and unsuited subjects due to the small number of tests performed, the method proved its feasibility for use in EVA suits and should be further developed to enhance the safety of EVA procedures.     

Mineralization of human bone tissue under hypokinesia and physical exercise with calcium supplements

It has been suggested that physical exercise and calcium supplements may be used to prevent demineralization of bone tissue under hypokinesia (diminished muscular activity). Thus, the aim of this study was to determine mineral content of bones of 12 physically healthy men aged 19-24 years under 90 days of hypokinesia and intensive physical exercise (PE) with calcium lactate (C) supplements. They were divided into experimental and control groups with 6 men in each. The experimental group of men were subjected to hypokinesia (HK) and intensive PE and took 650 mg C 6 times per day; the control group was placed under pure HK, i.e. without the use of any preventive measures. The mineral content of different bone tissues was measured with a densitometric X-ray method in milligrams of calcium per 1 mm3 before and after exposure to HK. The level of bone density of the examined bone tissues decreased by 7-9% and 5-7% for the control and experimental groups of men, respectively. A statistical analysis revealed that the reduction of bone mineralization was significant with P < 0.01 in both groups of men. A comparison between bone density changes in the control and experimental groups of men failed to demonstrate significant differences. It was concluded that the level of mineralization of bone tissues decreased under hypokinesia and physical exercise with calcium supplements.     

Validity and Sensitivity of a Brief Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT-B) to Total and Partial Sleep Deprivation

The Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) objectively assesses fatigue-related changes in alertness associated with sleep loss, extended wakefulness, circadian misalignment, and time on task. The standard 10-min PVT is often considered impractical in applied contexts. To address this limitation, we developed a modified brief 3-min version of the PVT (PVT-B). The PVT-B was validated in controlled laboratory studies with 74 healthy subjects (34 female, aged 22-45 years) that participated either in a total sleep deprivation (TSD) study involving 33 hours awake (N=31 subjects) or in a partial sleep deprivation (PSD) protocol involving 5 consecutive nights of 4 hours time in bed (N=43 subjects). PVT and PVT-B were performed regularly during wakefulness. Effect sizes of 5 key PVT outcomes were larger for TSD than PSD and larger for PVT than for PVT-B for all outcomes. Effect size was largest for response speed (reciprocal response time) for both the PVT-B and the PVT in both TSD and PSD. According to Cohen's criteria, effect sizes for the PVT-B were still large (TSD) or medium to large (PSD, except for fastest 10% RT). Compared to the 70% decrease in test duration the 22.7% (range 6.9%-67.8%) average decrease in effect size was deemed an acceptable trade-off between duration and sensitivity. Overall, PVT-B performance had faster response times, more false starts and fewer lapses than PVT performance (all p<0.01). After reducing the lapse threshold from 500 ms to 355 ms for PVT-B, mixed model ANOVAs indicated no differential sensitivity to sleep loss between PVT-B and PVT for all outcome variables (all P>0.15) but the fastest 10% response times during PSD (P<0.001), and effect sizes increased from 1.38 to 1.49 (TSD) and 0.65 to 0.76 (PSD), respectively. In conclusion, PVT-B tracked standard 10-min PVT performance throughout both TSD and PSD, and yielded medium to large effect sizes. PVT-B may be a useful tool for assessing behavioral alertness in settings where the duration of the 10-min PVT is considered impractical, although further validation in applied settings is needed.     

As assessment of habitat pressure, oxygen fraction, and EVA suit design for space operations

At high cabin pressure [e.g. 1013 hPa (14.7 psi) 21% O2] there are serious issues relative to specification of suit pressure and the need for prebreathing. A high pressure suit will be costly but use of the existing, flexible suit requires up to 6 h of prebreathing. Or one could use a cabin pressure of 700 hPa (10.2 psi) prior to extravehicular activity (EVA) in order to use the existing suit with only 1 h of prebreathing. If these normal cabin pressures and O2 levels are utilized, existing physiological and medical databases apply, providing a known basis for evaluating effects of long duration space missions. If a 345 hPa (5 psi), 70-100% O2 atmosphere is adopted the existing suit can be used with no prebreathing required. However, there is no reference database on physiological effects under the conditions of lower pressure and higher O2 concentration. This paper considers the major issues involved in defining habitat pressure, O2 fraction, and EVA suit design for operations in space. A preliminary model for evaluating habitat/suit pressure and O2% strategies is presented.     

资源卫星数据收集系统及其应用

简要说明了资源卫星数据收集系统(DCS)的原理、组成和特点,在对分布范围广、参数缓变和传输速率低的数据进行采集方面,资源卫星DCS具有很大的优势和很高的利用价值。结合环保监测应用的需求,对资源卫星DCS应用系统方案进行了详细设计。     

真空紫外辐射对碳/环氧复合材料性能影响

文章介绍了真空紫外线(VUV)的模拟和射流式真空紫外辐射模拟设备的工作原理、技术参数及特点,并利用该设备及其它分析手段对环氧树脂浇铸体(EP648)和碳/环氧复合材料(C/E648)在VUV辐照作用下的出气、质量损失率(SAML)、层间剪切强度(ILSS)和表面状态的变化进行了研究。试验结果表明：VUV辐照导致材料产生明显的出气效应,质量损失率呈现先递增后趋于平缓的趋势;17 280esh辐照剂量下,EP648的质量损失是C/E648的3．4倍,C/E648的ILSS与辐照前相比下降了13．3％;环氧树脂破损较重,而碳纤维表面状态基本完好,并对内部的环氧树脂起到一定的保护作用。     

Skylab experiment M-171 "Metabolic Activity"--results of the first manned mission

The experiment was performed to ascertain whether man's ability to perform mechanical work would be altered as a result of exposure to the weightless environment. Skylab II crewmen were exercised on a bicycle ergometer at loads approximating 25%, 50%, and 75% of their maximum oxygen uptake while their physiological responses were monitored. The results of these tests indicate that the crewmen had no significant decrement in their response to exercise during their exposure to zero gravity. Immediately postflight, however, all crewmen demonstrated an inability to perform the programmed exercise with the same metabolic effectiveness as they did both preflight and inflight. The most significant changes were elevated heart rates for the same work load and oxygen consumption (decreased oxygen pulse), decreased stroke volume, and decreased cardiac output at the same oxygen consumption level. It is apparent that the changes occurred inflight, but did not manifest themselves until the crewmen attempted to readapt to the 1-G environment.     

The main results of EVA medical support on the Mir Space Station

The aim of this paper is to review the main results of medical support of 78 two-person extravehicular activities (EVAs) which have been conducted in the Mir Space Program. Thirty-six male crewmembers participated in these EVAs. Maximum length of a space walk was equal to 7 h 14 min. The total duration of all space walks reached 717.1 man-hours. The maximum frequency of EVA's execution was 10 per year. Most of the EVAs (67) have been performed at mission elapsed time ranging from 31 to 180 days. The oxygen atmosphere of the Orlan space suit with a pressure of 40 kPa in combination with the normobaric cabin environment and a short (30 min) oxygen prebreathe protocol have minimized the risk of decompression sickness (DCS). There has been no incidence of DCS during performed EVAs. At the peak activity, metabolic rates and heart rates increased up to 9.9-13 kcal/min and 150-174 min-1, respectively. The medical problems have centred on feeling of moderate overcooling during a rest period in a shadow after the high physical loads, episodes with tachycardia accompanied by cardiac rhythm disorders at the moments of emotional stress, pains in the muscles and general fatigue after the end of a hard EVA. All of the EVAs have been completed safely.     

Impaired T-wave amplitude adaptation to heart-rate induced by cardiac deconditioning after 5-days of head-down bed-rest

The study of QT/RR relationship is important for the clinical evaluation of possible risk of acquired or congenital ventricular tachyarrhythmias. In the hypothesis that microgravity exposure could induce changes in the repolarization mechanisms, our aim was to test if a short 5-days strict 6° head-down bed-rest (HDBR) could induce alterations in the QT/RR relationship and spatial repolarization heterogeneity. Twenty-two healthy men (mean age 31±6) were enrolled as part of the European Space Agency HDBR studies. High fidelity (1000 Hz) 24 h Holter ECG (12-leads, Mortara Instrument) was acquired before (PRE), the last day of HDBR (HDT5), and four days after its conclusion (POST). The night period (23:00–06:30) was selected for analysis. X, Y, Z leads were derived and the vectorcardiogram computed. Selective beat averaging was used to obtain averages of P–QRS–T complexes preceded by the same RR (10 ms bin amplitude, in the range 900–1200 ms). For each averaged waveform (i.e., one for each bin), T-wave maximum amplitude (Tmax), T-wave area (Tarea), RTapex, RTend, ventricular gradient (VG) magnitude and spatial QRS-T angle were computed. Non-parametric Friedman test was applied. Compared to PRE, at HDT5 both RTapex and RTend resulted shortened (−4%), with a decrease in T-wave amplitude (−8%) and area (−13%). VG was diminished by 10%, and QRS-T angle increased by 14°. At POST, QT duration and area parameters, as well as QRS-T angle were restored while Tmax resulted larger than PRE (+5%) and VG was still decreased by 3%. Also, a marked loss in strength of the linear regression with RR was found at HDT5 in Tmax and Tarea, that could represent a new dynamic marker of increased risk for life-threatening arrhythmias. Despite the short-term HDBR, ventricular repolarization during the night period was affected. This should be taken into account in astronauts for risk assessment during space flight.     

Evaluation of safety of hypobaric decompressions and EVA from positions of probabilistic theory

Formation and subsequent evolution of gas bubbles in blood and tissues of subjects exposed to decompression are casual processes in their nature. Such character of bubbling processes in a body predetermines probabilistic character of decompression sickness (DCS) incidence in divers, aviators and astronauts. Our original probabilistic theory of decompression safety is based on stochastic models of these processes and on the concept of critical volume of a free gas phase in body tissues. From positions of this theory, the probability of DCS incidence during single-stage decompressions and during hypobaric decompressions under EVA in particular, is defined by the distribution of possible values of nucleation efficiency in "pain" tissues and by its critical significance depended on the parameters of a concrete decompression. In the present study the following is shown: 1) the dimensionless index of critical nucleation efficiency for "pain" body tissues is a more adequate index of decompression stress in comparison with Tissue Ratio, TR; 2) a priory the decompression under EVA performed according to the Russian protocol is more safe than decompression under EVA performed in accordance with the U.S. protocol; 3) the Russian space suit operated at a higher pressure and having a higher "rigidity" induces a stronger inhibition of mechanisms of cavitation and gas bubbles formation in tissues of a subject located in it, and by that provides a more considerable reduction of the DCS risk during real EVA performance.     

Comparative survival analysis of Deinococcus radiodurans and the haloarchaea Natrialba magadii and Haloferax volcanii exposed to vacuum ultraviolet irradiation

The haloarchaea Natrialba magadii and Haloferax volcanii, as well as the radiation-resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, were exposed to vacuum UV (VUV) radiation at the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory. Cell monolayers (containing 10(5) to 10(6) cells per sample) were prepared over polycarbonate filters and irradiated under high vacuum (10(-5) Pa) with polychromatic synchrotron radiation. N. magadii was remarkably resistant to high vacuum with a survival fraction of (3.77±0.76)×10(-2), which was larger than that of D. radiodurans (1.13±0.23)×10(-2). The survival fraction of the haloarchaea H. volcanii, of (3.60±1.80)×10(-4), was much smaller. Radiation resistance profiles were similar between the haloarchaea and D. radiodurans for fluences up to 150?J m(-2). For fluences larger than 150?J m(-2), there was a significant decrease in the survival of haloarchaea, and in particular H. volcanii did not survive. Survival for D. radiodurans was 1% after exposure to the higher VUV fluence (1350?J m(-2)), while N. magadii had a survival lower than 0.1%. Such survival fractions are discussed regarding the possibility of interplanetary transfer of viable microorganisms and the possible existence of microbial life in extraterrestrial salty environments such as the planet Mars and Jupiter's moon Europa. This is the first work to report survival of haloarchaea under simulated interplanetary conditions.     

The second stage propulsion system for N-launch vehicle

The pressure-fed second stage propulsion system for N-launch vehicle provides 53,348 N (5440 kg) thrust for about 250 sec at an Isp of 290.2 sec. Aluminum tanks, integral with vehicle structure, carry a minimum of 4.7 ton propellant combination of N₂O₄ and Aerozine 50. The gimbaled engine consists of a regenerative cooled chamber, ablative nozzle spacer, and a radiation cooled nozzle extension with an exit area ratio of 26. Utmost utilization of domestically available technology and facilities underlay the design concept. Development of the propulsion system took 5 years with the first flight occurring in 1975. Five consecutive flight successes up to 1979 have demonstrated the reliability and performance of the system.Improved N vehicle, designated as N-II, will succeed the N vehicle. New second stage propulsion system for N-II delivers 43,816 N (4468 kg) thrust at an Isp of 314.1 sec and has restart-capability.     

Effects of a simulated martian UV flux on the cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis sp. 029

Dried monolayers of Chroococcidiopsis sp. 029, a desiccation-tolerant, endolithic cyanobacterium, were exposed to a simulated martian-surface UV and visible light flux, which may also approximate to the worst-case scenario for the Archean Earth. After 5 min, there was a 99% loss of cell viability, and there were no survivors after 30 min. However, this survival was approximately 10 times higher than that previously reported for Bacillus subtilis. We show that under 1 mm of rock, Chroococcidiopsis sp. could survive (and potentially grow) under the high martian UV flux if water and nutrient requirements for growth were met. In isolated cells, phycobilisomes and esterases remained intact hours after viability was lost. Esterase activity was reduced by 99% after a 1-h exposure, while 99% loss of autofluorescence required a 4-h exposure. However, cell morphology was not changed, and DNA was still detectable by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining after an 8-h exposure (equivalent to approximately 1 day on Mars at the equator). Under 1 mm of simulant martian soil or gneiss, the effect of UV radiation could not be detected on esterase activity or autofluorescence after 4 h. These results show that under the intense martian UV flux the morphological signatures of life can persist even after viability, enzymatic activity, and pigmentation have been destroyed. Finally, the global dispersal of viable, isolated cells of even this desiccation-tolerant, ionizing-radiation-resistant microorganism on Mars is unlikely as they are killed quickly by unattenuated UV radiation when in a desiccated state. These findings have implications for the survival of diverse microbial contaminants dispersed during the course of human exploratory class missions on the surface of Mars.     

Biomarker response to galactic cosmic ray-induced NOx and the methane greenhouse effect in the atmosphere of an Earth-like planet orbiting an M dwarf star

Planets orbiting in the habitable zone of M dwarf stars are subject to high levels of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), which produce nitrogen oxides (NOx) in Earth-like atmospheres. We investigate to what extent these NO(Mx) species may modify biomarker compounds such as ozone (O3) and nitrous oxide (N2O), as well as related compounds such as water (H2O) (essential for life) and methane (CH4) (which has both abiotic and biotic sources). Our model results suggest that such signals are robust, changing in the M star world atmospheric column due to GCR NOx effects by up to 20% compared to an M star run without GCR effects, and can therefore survive at least the effects of GCRs. We have not, however, investigated stellar cosmic rays here. CH4 levels are about 10 times higher on M star worlds than on Earth because of a lowering in hydroxyl (OH) in response to changes in the ultraviolet. The higher levels of CH4 are less than reported in previous studies. This difference arose partly because we used different biogenic input. For example, we employed 23% lower CH4 fluxes compared to those studies. Unlike on Earth, relatively modest changes in these fluxes can lead to larger changes in the concentrations of biomarker and related species on the M star world. We calculate a CH4 greenhouse heating effect of up to 4K. O3 photochemistry in terms of the smog mechanism and the catalytic loss cycles on the M star world differs considerably compared with that of Earth.     

Communications transponder performance for Japanese Communications Satellite-2 and prospects for future systems

Communications transponder for the Japanese Communications Satellite-2 (CS-2a and 2b) to be launched into a geostationary orbit by N-II launch vehicle in February and August, 1983, has been developed. The transponder is provided with six-channel K-band ($\text{30}\text{20}\text{GHz}$) transponder including beacon transmitter, which operates in the highest frequency ranges ever utilized on an operational communications satellite, and two-channel C-band ($\text{6}\text{4}\text{GHz}$) transponder. Receiver front end of the K-band transponder consists of a direct mixer followed by a 1.8 GHz IF amplifier and provides 8 dB noise figure. 20 GHz output power is 4 W by final amplification at 5-W TWTA. C-band transponder provides 4 dB noise figure and 4.3-W output power. Key factors for future high capacity transponder are also presented.     

Social desirability bias in personality testing: implications for astronaut selection

The assessment of personality is recognized by space agencies as an approach to identify candidates likely to perform optimally during spaceflights. In the use of personality scales for selection, the impact of social desirability (SD) has been cited as a concern. Study 1 addressed the impact of SD on responses to the Personality Characteristic Inventory(PCI) and NEO-FFI. This was achieved by contrasting scores from active astronauts (N=65) with scores of successful astronaut applicants (N=63), and between pilots applicants (N=1271) and pilot research subjects (N=120). Secondly, personality scores were correlated with scores on the Marlow Crown Social Desirability Scale among applicants to managerial positions (N=120). The results indicated that SD inflated scores on PCI scales assessing negative interpersonal characteristics, and impacted on four of five scales in NEO-FFI. Still, the effect sizes were small or moderate. Study 2 addressed performance implications of SD during an assessment of males applying to work as rescue personnel operations in the North Sea (N=22). The results showed that SD correlated negatively with cognitive test performance, and positively with discrepancy in performance ratings between self and two observers. In conclusion, caution is needed in interpreting personality scores in applicant populations. SD maybe a negative predictor for performance under stress.     

Effectiveness of centrifuge-induced artificial gravity with ergometric exercise as a countermeasure during simulated microgravity exposure in humans

To test the effectiveness of centrifuge-induced artificial gravity with ergometric exercise, 12 healthy young men (20.7 +/- 1.9 yr) were exposed to simulated microgravity for 14 days of -6 degrees head-down bedrest. Half the subjects were randomly selected and loaded 1.2 G artificial gravity with 60 W (four out of six subjects) or 40 W (two out of six subjects) of ergometric workload on days 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14 (CM group). The rest of the subjects served as the control. Anti-G score, defined as the G-load x running time to the endpoint, was significantly elongated by the load of the centrifuge-ergometer. Plasma volume loss was suppressed (-5.0 +/- 2.4 vs. -16.4 +/- 1.9%), and fluid volume shift was prevented by the countermeasure load. Elevated heart rate and muscle sympathetic nerve activity after bedrest were counteracted, and exaggerated response to head-up tilt was also suppressed. Centrifuge-induced artificial gravity with exercise is effective in preventing cardiovascular deconditioning due to microgravity exposure, however, an effective and appropriate regimen (magnitude of G-load and exercise workload) should be determined in future studies.     

基于深度学习的多步预测方法在太阳风速度预测上的应用

为对近地环境太阳风状况进行可靠预测,引入基于深度学习的多步预测方法来预测在太阳与地球之间的拉格朗日点1(L1)处距离输入观测数据序列未来24、48、72、96 h的太阳风速度.采用SDO的图像数据提取冕洞面积等特征信息,并从NASA OMNIWEB数据集提取其他输入特征,形成多变量的时序数据作为太阳风速度预测的输入信息...