Infrared astronomy on the midcourse space experiment

The Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) is a multiple objective experiment scheduled to fly by the end of 1994. Infrared photometry and interferometry will be obtained by a solid hydrogen cooled, off-axis telescope of 35 cm unobscured primary aperture. The sensitivities of the line scanned arrays are comparable to IRAS bands 1 and 2 but the spatial resolution is some 30 times better. Nine broadly defined astronomy experiments are planned for the 18 month cryogen phase of the mission. Four of these experiments survey regions not adequately covered by previous infrared missions: the zodiacal cloud near the sun and the anti-solar direction, the Galactic Plane where IRAS sensitivities were limited by confusion and the gaps left by the IRAS survey. The higher sensitivity obtained from raster scans will probe Galactic structure and create intermediate spatial resolution maps of extended sources such as HII regions, the Magellanic Clouds and nearby galaxies. Measurements are also planned on a number of solar system objects such as planets, asteroids, the dust bands, comets and cometary debris trails. Moderate resolution spectra of a number of bright, discrete, extended sources will be obtained as well as low resolution spectral mapping along the Galactic Plane and Zodiacal dust cloud.     

飞行器表面红外辐射的模型以及红外特征分析(英文)

隐身最重要的技术之一是评估飞行器被红外探测器接收到的红外辐射强度。本文针对飞行器表面红外辐射特征计算的问题提出一个方法。首先通过分析飞行器表面气动加热、发动机热部件等主要热源,建立了CFD计算模型并获得了飞行表面的温度场。并结合反向蒙特卡洛方法建立求解飞行器表面复杂几何外形的红外辐射模型。通过数值模拟,比较了飞行器主要部件在水平和侧向上红外辐射强度所占的比重;并针对飞行器主要部件冷却对红外辐射强度的影响效果进行了研究。计算结果表明:在水平方向降低飞行器头部、垂尾、机翼部件表面温度10K能降低红外辐射强度大于8%;而在侧方向降低飞行器头部、垂尾、机翼部件表面温度10K能降低红外辐射强度小于8%。计算结果可为隐身设计提供参考。     

High-resolution multiple target angle tracking

An approach to high-resolution multiple-target-angle tracking that uses the output of an array of sensors is presented. The results of direction-of-arrival estimation by eigenstructure analysis are extended to derive a recursive procedure for tracking moving sources. This procedure involves recursive eigenvalue decomposition and a zero-tracking algorithm, using the coefficient derived from the minimum-norm criterion. The algorithm has superresolution capability in that a pair of closely spaced target angles can be resolved and tracked even though the angular separation between them is less than the reciprocal of the aperture size. Simulation results verify that the algorithm works well in tracking multiple-target sources     

On-board correction of systematic error of Earth sensors

Infrared Earth sensors are used in spacecraft for attitude sensing. Their accuracy is limited by systematic and random errors. Dominant sources of systematic errors are analyzed for a typical scanning infrared Earth sensor used in a remote-sensing satellite in a 900-km Sun-synchronous orbit. The errors considered arise from seasonable variation of infrared radiation; oblate shape of the Earth; ambient temperature of sensors; changes in spin/scan period; and misalignment of the axis of the sensors. Simple relations are derived using least-squares curve fitting for onboard correction of these errors. With these, it is possible to improve the accuracy of attitude determination by eight fold and achieve performance comparable to ground-based post-facto attitude computation     

Infrared telescope in space: IRTS

The IRTS is a first Japanese infrared satellite mission which will be launched on February of 1995 by HII rocket. The IRTS is one of the mission experiments aboard the small space platform, SFU. The telescope aperture of the IRTS is 15cm, but is cooled by liquid Helium to realize very low background condition. Four instruments are installed on the focal plane which cover wide wavelengths from near infrared to submillimeter regions. The IRTS is optimized to observe the diffuse extended emission, and will survey about 10% of the sky in 20 days of mission life. The IRTS will provide significant information on cosmology, interstellar matter, late type stars, and interplanetary dust.     

Lasers as local oscillators

Conclusions In this survey we have tried to outline the aspects of current laser research and laser technology that are of relevance to heterodyne detection. We have seen that powerful, stable and narrowline sources are available to perform further heterodyne experiments at fixed frequencies. Taking a realistic view, one has to admit, however, that —at least in the far infrared — no really satisfyingtunable source is today available. In the near and the middle infrared, we are confident that further improvements of some of the devices discussed before will allow for true tunable heterodyne observations in the near future.     

Comet Halley's Gas Composition and Extended Sources: Results from the Neutral Mass Spectrometer on Giotto

The Neutral Mass Spectrometer on the Giotto spacecraft established that H₂O is the dominant species in Comet Halley's volatiles and determined the abundance of more than 10 parent species. The instrument discovered strong extended H₂CO and CO sources in the coma of Comet Halley. Polymerized H₂CO associated with the cometary dust and evaporating slowly as the monomer is most likely the extended H₂CO source. Photodissociation of the H₂CO into CO fully accounts for the extended CO source. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

编队小卫星星间基线估计算法研究

H ill方程假设卫星轨道是小偏心率和无摄动的,实际应用时难以获得高精度的星间基线估计。本文提出了一种基于主星位置展开的扩展Kalm an滤波算法,该算法采用含摄动的卫星运动模型,综合利用星间无线电和红外仪器的原始量测,实现了小卫星星间基线的融合估计,提高了估计精度。仿真实验针对J2摄动模型验证了算法的可行性和有效性。     

喷气动力装置的红外辐射源及其抑制

本文分析喷气动力装置的红外辐射源,并讨论抑制红外辐射的技术途径.喷气动力装置的红外辐射来源于燃烧引起的高温,并可区分为两大类:固体表面的辐射和热喷流的辐射.一般而言,抑制红外辐射可从以下三个方面着手:(1)用冷却或绝热的方法降低辐射表面的温度,或通过蔽挡阻止红外辐射的传播;(2)加速喷气流与周围空气的混合,使喷流温度快速降低;(3)降低燃烧产物中辐射成分的浓度.     

Infrared irradiance calibration

Infrared astronomical measurements are calibrated against reference sources, usually primary standard stars that are, in turn, calibrated either by direct or indirect means. A direct calibration compares the star with a certified source, typically a blackbody. Indirect methods extrapolate a direct measurement of the flux at one wavelength to the flux at another. Historically, α Lyr (Vega) has been used as the primary standard as it is bright, easily accessible from the northern hemisphere, and is well calibrated in the visual. Until recently, the direct absolute infrared calibrations of α Lyr and those derived from the absolute solar flux scaled to the observed spectral energy distributions of solar type stars increasingly diverged with wavelength from those obtained using a model atmosphere to extrapolate the absolute visual flux of Vega into the infrared. The exception is the direct calibration by the 1996/97 Midcourse Space Experiment of the absolute fluxes for a number of the commonly used infrared standard stars, including Vega.In the mid-1980s, the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory began a program that led to the establishment of a network of stars with which to calibrate infrared space-based sensors. α Lyr and a CMa were adopted as the fundamental references and the absolute 1.2 to 35 µm infrared spectral energy distributions for the 616 secondary standard stars in the network were derived through spectral and photometric comparisons with the primary standards. The stars are also used for calibration at ground-based infrared observatories. For applications in which the network stars may not be bright enough, particularly at the longer infrared wavelengths, planets and the larger asteroids are used. Planets and asteroids move and rather sophisticated thermal modeling of the bodies is required to predict the disk-integrated brightness at a specific time with reasonable accuracy. The Infrared Space Observatory applied such a sophisticated ‘thermo-physical’ model to the largest asteroids to support calibration of the sensors to a claimed accuracy of within 5%. The AFRL program also created a spectral atlas of the brightest stars in the sky that, although they are variable, may be used for calibration if the large(r) attendant uncertainties are acceptable.This revised version was published online in July 2005 with a corrected cover date.     

Signal-to-noise ratio and other characteristics of heterodyne radiation receivers

The theory of heterodyne radiation receivers for the infrared and far-infrared is reviewed. For simplicity, only systems based on photoemissive and photoconductive radiation mixers are considered. The signal-to-noise ratio is derived, and expressions for this quantity under various conditions are given. A brief comparison is made between heterodyne systems and high-resolution spectrometers using direct radiation detectors. It is concluded that for high spectral resolving powers and for relatively small astronomical sources, heterodyne systems are likely to offer a distinct advantage in signal-to-noise ratio, especially at long far-infrared wavelengths.     

Obscured Activity: AGN, Quasars, Starbursts and ULIGs Observed by the Infrared Space Observatory

Some of the most ‘active’ galaxies in the Universe are obscured by large quantities of dust and emit a substantial fraction of their bolometric luminosity in the infrared. Observations of these infrared luminous galaxies with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) have provided a relatively unabsorbed view to the sources fuelling this active emission. The improved sensitivity, spatial resolution and spectroscopic capability of ISO over its predecessor Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) of enabled significant advances in the understanding of the infrared properties of active galaxies. ISO surveyed a wide range of active galaxies which, in the context of this review, includes those powered by intense bursts of star formation as well as those containing a dominant active galactic nucleus (AGN). Mid-infrared imaging resolved for the first time the dust enshrouded nuclei in many nearby galaxies, while a new era in infrared spectroscopy was opened by probing a wealth of atomic, ionic and molecular lines as well as broad band features in the mid- and far-infrared. This was particularly useful, since it resulted in the understanding of the power production, excitation and fuelling mechanisms in the nuclei of active galaxies including the intriguing but so far elusive ultraluminous infrared galaxies. Detailed studies of various classes of AGN and quasars greatly improved our understanding of the unification scenario. Far-infrared imaging and photometry revealed the presence of a new very cold dust component in galaxies and furthered our knowledge of the far-infrared properties of faint starbursts, ULIGs and quasars. We summarise almost nine years of key results based on ISO data spanning the full range of luminosity and type of active galaxies.     

A fusion and learning algorithm for landing aircraft tracking:compensating for exhaust plume disturbance

An algorithm is presented for tracking a landing aircraft using fusion of two different passive sensors, a laser range finder (LRF) and a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera. The main feature of this algorithm is its ability to identify and compensate for an exhaust plume disturbance. The algorithm is based on the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the filtering confidence function (FCF) which introduces a learning approach to the tracking problem. The results of a simulation using the learning tracking algorithm and the EKF alone are presented and compared     

Adaptive Tracker Field-of-View Variation Via Multiple Model Filtering

Adaptive estimation using multiple model filtering is investigated as a means of changing the field of view as well as the bandwidth of an infrared image tracker when target acceleration can vary over a wide range. The multiple models are created by tuning filters for best performance at differing conditions of exhibited target behavior and differing physical size of their respective fields of view. Probabilistically weighted averaging provides the adaptation mechanism. Each filter involves online identification of the target shape function, so that this algorithm can be used against ill-defined and/or multiple-hot-spot targets. When each individual filter has the form of an enhanced correlator/linear Kalman filter, computational loading is very low. In contrast, an extended Kalman filter processing the raw infrared data directly and assuming a nonlinear constant turn-rate dynamics model provides superior tracking capability, especially for harsh maneuvers, at the cost of a larger computational burden.     

对红外制导系统的噪声分析与动态模拟

本文基于近红外制导系统噪声分析的框架模型，在分析探讨主要噪声源的基础上，给出了基本噪声立意，建立了探测器等组成部件基本噪声的功率谱分析式，设计出一种以红外探测器为抑制主体的减噪系统。通过目标、误差响应率的测定与跟踪试验获得较好的效果。     

The Use of Extraterrestrial Radio Sources in the Measurement of Antenna Parameters

Extraterrestrial radio sources, whose emission characteristics (flux density, spectrum, angular size) and coordinates have been firmly established by careful observations, have application in the measurement of the effective area (aperture efficiency and gain) of an antenna and its radiation pattern. The radio-emission characteristics of the strong discrete (celestial) radio sources, of the sun, and of the moon are presented. Problems encountered when the sensitivity is insufficient for complete radiation pattern determination , when the width of the radio source is comparable to the beamwidth of the antenna, when the illumination of the antenna aperture varies with pointing direction, or when the techniques are extended (after determining the gain of the ground-based antenna) to the measurement of the effective radiated power from a satellite are discussed.     

Energy and power

Energy sources for aerospace systems include electrochemicals, mechanical rotation, solar illumination, radioisotopes, and nuclear reactors. Energy is converted to power with engines, turbines, photovoltaics, thermoelectric and thermionic devices, and electrochemical processes. Although some early spacecraft flew with battery power, for longer flights the choice has been either solar or nuclear. Manned spacecraft must have power for the total mission duration including boost into orbit, on-orbit, and subsequent re-entry. Batteries are too heavy for extended manned space missions; tradeoff study alternatives range from radioisotope heated thermionic converters to hyperbolic-fueled engines. Arrays of solar cells are the obvious choice for powering space stations and for other extended-duration missions. This article emphasizes developments for space and airplane power systems. Enabling technologies are described along with significant spin-offs and future systems     

New criterion for aircraft susceptibility to infrared guided missiles

This paper assesses aircraft susceptibility from the first principles, with respect to the threat posed by passively guided infrared homing missiles; with an objective of gaining insight into the comprehensiveness of the relationship between aircraft susceptibility and aircraft infrared signature level. The conventional criterion of aircraft susceptibility assessment based on its lock-on envelop is found to be inadequate, and a new criterion termed here as the Lethal Envelop is presented. The proposed susceptibility assessment criterion is more relevant for coming generation of infrared-guided missiles, because of advancements in the infrared detection technology. A threshold infrared signature level is also proposed as benchmark to be satisfied by all infrared signature suppression systems; if aircraft susceptibility to infrared guided missiles is to be reduced. This analysis is vital for gauging the effectiveness of infrared signature suppression systems. A typical air-to-air combat situation is simulated, and the results that lead to aircraft susceptibility assessment are obtained from this model, which illustrates the comprehensiveness of the redefined aircraft susceptibility assessment approach.     

Infrared Irradiance Calibration

Infrared astronomical measurements are calibrated against reference sources, usually primary standard stars that are, in turn, calibrated either by direct or indirect means. A direct calibration compares the star with a certified source, typically a blackbody. Indirect methods extrapolate a direct measurement of the flux at one wavelength to the flux at another. Historically, α Lyr (Vega) has been used as the primary standard as it is bright, easily accessible from the northern hemisphere, and is well calibrated in the visual. Until recently, the direct absolute infrared calibrations of α Lyr and those derived from the absolute solar flux scaled to the observed spectral energy distributions of solar type stars increasingly diverged with wavelength from those obtained using a model atmosphere to extrapolate the absolute visual flux of Vega into the infrared. The exception is the direct calibration by the 1996/97 Midcourse Space Experiment of the absolute fluxes for a number of the commonly used infrared standard stars, including Vega.In the mid-1980s, the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory began a program that led to the establishment of a network of stars with which to calibrate infrared space-based sensors. α Lyr and a CMa were adopted as the fundamental references and the absolute 1.2 to 35 µm infrared spectral energy distributions for the 616 secondary standard stars in the network were derived through spectral and photometric comparisons with the primary standards. The stars are also used for calibration at ground-based infrared observatories. For applications in which the network stars may not be bright enough, particularly at the longer infrared wavelengths, planets and the larger asteroids are used. Planets and asteroids move and rather sophisticated thermal modeling of the bodies is required to predict the disk-integrated brightness at a specific time with reasonable accuracy. The Infrared Space Observatory applied such a sophisticated ‘thermo-physical’ model to the largest asteroids to support calibration of the sensors to a claimed accuracy of within 5%. The AFRL program also created a spectral atlas of the brightest stars in the sky that, although they are variable, may be used for calibration if the large(r) attendant uncertainties are acceptable.