The case for enhanced India–Canada space cooperation

Based on the premise that both India and Canada are spacefaring nations actively involved in the exploration and use of outer space towards scientific and commercial ends, this paper seeks to pave the way for each of the two countries to derive optimum scientific and economic benefits from their space activities through bilateral cooperation. Although each country's space programme has a different focus, the analysis in the paper demonstrates that they could be highly complementary of, and beneficial to, each other. Notwithstanding the presently conducive political environment for bilateral cooperation, as evidenced by the recent high-level political exchanges between the two countries, there are several regulatory and policy obstacles that will hinder any efforts towards bilateral space cooperation. The paper proffers some viable options for overcoming the challenges identified or envisaged.     

A new cooperative strategy for space in the twenty-first century

The context within which the major government space programmes of the world are planned and obtain political approval has changed dramatically with the end of the Cold War. International economic competition has become a central issue in international affairs. Economic and political constraints require that space agencies adapt the ambitious plans they put forward in the 1980s to the realities of this decade and beyond. This paper argues that in this changed context, enhanced international space cooperation can make important contributions to advancing the core interests of nations and firms, and that in some situations, increased and more intimate cooperation may be the only way to achieve ambitious space goals. The paper contains a series of policy-oriented findings and recommendations that together comprise a ‘new cooperative strategy’ for space.     

Is there a need for an African space agency?

Over the past few years, the view has been expressed in some quarters that Africa should establish a continental space agency. Various arguments are advanced for this, but they are generally not compelling and rely mostly on pointing to the existence of other regional space cooperation organisations, or to benefits that are debatable. The article considers these arguments and concludes that there is an insufficient case for the establishment of an African space agency at this point in the development of the space arena in Africa. Instead, greater emphasis should be placed on strengthening nascent national space programmes, fostering intra-regional cooperation and raising the profile of space activities in Africa's national and regional political structures.     

Modeling international cooperation for space exploration

Space exploration into the twenty-first century is contingent upon the ability of states to forge an appropriate vehicle for international cooperation. A theoretical framework that explains international cooperation in space exploration is proposed. This framework encompasses scientific, technological, political, and economic initial conditions, state and nonstate political actors, and models of cooperation that explain how initial conditions and actors interact to realize cooperative outcomes. It is hypothesized that the prevailing initial conditions favor certain political actors over others which, in turn, promote a specific model of cooperation. Cooperative policy outcomes are examined and assessed vis-à-vis case studies of cooperation in space exploration. On this basis, policy recommendations that engender effective cooperative outcomes in space exploration are suggested.     

The changing geopolitics of space activities

Traditional space relations among civilian space actors are undergoing in the post-cold war era a rapid evolution with a growing number of new institutional entities. The cold war era and its resulting political environment, which limited space cooperation to ‘intra-bloc’ cooperation, has disappeared, allowing the development of new axes and mechanisms of cooperation. The internationalization and regionalization of space activities witnessed in recent years is foreseen to gain momentum, leading therefore to a new geography of civilian space activities.     

A new setting for international space cooperation?

The year 2004 could be seen as the turning point for the realignment of international space cooperation for the 21st century. At the very core of this readjustment, the US space exploration initiative strives to define a new scheme for such a broad array of aspects as international scientific cooperation, the role of the space industry and the organizational framework for international space applications. This paper argues that the success of this new outline of international space cooperation depends on several conditions. First, the US initiative needs to demonstrate its long-term continuity and reliability for international partners, which will depend to no small degree on the future of the ISS and its utilization for international research. Second, international cooperation between industrial partners will continue to need political frameworks and depend on a balanced handling of know-how partnerships. Third, cooperation in space applications will need a truly international structure to further its global acceptance and outreach.     

Forging a closer Europe–Japan strategic partnership: The space dimension

This viewpoint explores how a strengthening of Europe–Japan cooperation in four categories of space-related activities (exploration and access to space; Earth observation and related applications; industry-to-industry cooperation; and space security) can contribute to the EU–Japan strategic partnership more broadly. It is argued that integrating key space portfolios into existing venues and agendas for bilateral consultations and decision-making has the potential to bolster the overarching objective of deepening further political, economic, commercial, societal and cultural relations.     

Space development: social and political implications

Far-reaching social and political issues are implicit in any discussion of large-scale space development. This Viewpoint argues that the evolution of appropriate political institutions to deal with these issues is likely to be at least as important as the development of new technology. If large-scale space development is to take place, global international cooperation will be essential and such cooperation will have to be underpinned by enhanced institutional and legal structures. In the shorter term, an appropriate institutional response may be the creation of a World Space Agency. However, in the longer term, we should probably view a world space programme as falling within that class of global concerns that would be most appropriately managed by a federal world government.     

The history of international space programmes

In reviewing the past 50 years of international space cooperation, much of it stunningly successful, some bedevilled by difficulties, the author notes that ‘space’ can now only be understood as a complex area of widely varied sectors, further complicated by different funding sources and dual-use activities. While scientists were the initial drivers of cooperation, their flourishing programmes risk losing government funding to the grandiose manned missions being envisaged. Such funding is strongly reliant on political will rather than on the merits of any particular programme, something that, until recently with the GEO, has been particularly evident in earth observations. A major problem has been countries’ efforts to secure some minor national advantage at the expense of the bigger picture. But for international space cooperation truly to benefit humanity, a greater acceptance of working for the common good and more efficient programme management (no duplication) will be required.     

The land remote sensing commercialization Act of 1984

This article examines the effect that private-sector remote sensing activities might have on the international community and on the future of international cooperation in space. It describes in detail The Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, recently passed by the US Congress and signed by President Reagan. The article concludes that it is possible to develop domestic regulations that balance the economic interests of the private sector with the legal and political concerns of the international community.     

But what is the true rationale for human spaceflight?

Human interest in spaceflight is ancient. It is therefore ironic that, at a time when humans finally have the capability to travel in space, the notion that we should do so is being questioned. The author analyses the reasons for this — the historical/political and technological contingency of the Space Age and the sudden falling away of the conditions which drove space activity — and in the process provides a critique of the forgoing article and the tendency to search for utilitarian justifications of human spaceflight. He argues rather that space programmes will thrive only when driven by non-material cultural and political forces. US-Russian cooperation, which has principally been undertaken for geopolitical reasons is a model for the future.     

Brazilian-Chinese space cooperation: an analysis

This paper aims to examine some of the most important juridical issues raised during the short, but rich, history of Brazilian-Chinese space cooperation. It tries to assess the effectiveness of the agreements signed by these countries on space matters.At the same time, it seeks to present the political and legal concepts which founded the main phases of this history.     

Lord Young of Dartington and the Argo Venture

Although best known for his political and social achievements, the late Lord Young was also an early advocate of space exploration and cooperation. This article describes his proposal for a simulated Mars habitation, the ‘Argo Venture’, and the steps that were taken to try and bring it about. Although financial support was ultimately withdrawn in the face of the US Biosphere 2 project, a number of current Mars-related projects suggest that the Argo Venture is not entirely forgotten.     

Article

This is a slightly edited version of the Executive Summary of a joint report on cooperation in space science produced by the Space Studies Board of the USA National Research Council and the European Space Science Committee of the European Science Foundation. Using analysis of 13 case-study missions it reviews 30 years of joint missions and makes 14 recommendations based on its findings. These include the importance of setting a scientific rationale for each mission and of ensuring that objectives are shared by engineers and others involved in it, the need for independent periodic assessments and that all agreements should specify the scope, expectations and obligations of the respective agencies and relevant partners.The USA and Europe have been cooperating in space science for more than three decades. This history of cooperation has survived significant geopolitical, economic and technological changes, such as the end of the Cold War, the pressure of budget reductions and the increasing focus on economic competition and the global marketplace. Both Europe and the USA have learned from one another and acquired a knowledge base as well as an infrastructure to implement joint missions and research activities. More importantly, the decades of cooperative space research efforts between the USA and Europe have built a community of scientists whose joint scientific exchanges have established a heritage of cooperation on both sides of the Atlantic.The scientific fruits of this heritage are plainly evident in achievements such as a signature for supermassive black holes provided by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST); the first views of the solar atmosphere and corona illuminated by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO); the sharing of expensive research facilities on the International Microgravity Laboratory (IML); and the impressive data on ocean altimetry from the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX-POSEIDON) mission, which is significantly improving our understanding of global ocean circulation.There were no guideposts for the emergence of space science cooperation between Europe and the USA. In the process of introducing new procedures and improvements to facilitate cooperation, missteps occurred, and there were political, economic and scientific losses. This report takes stock of US–European history in cooperative space endeavors, the lessons it has demonstrated and the opportunities it suggests to enhance and improve future US–European cooperative efforts in the sciences conducted in space.     

The US civilian space programme : Charting a new course

The US space programme continues to face difficulties in restructuring to meet existing political and fiscal conditions, in part because the basic structure and focus of the programme derive from the tensions of the Cold War. This paper argues that the world's new, more complicated political and economic conditions present a challenge for US policy makers that can be met with a renewed focus on the pursuit of science and the public good, within the context of international economic competition and political and scientific cooperation.     

Organizing space cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region

The time for regional cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region is now ripe. Steps have been taken towards this via a workshop sponsored by China - previously wary of cooperation but now seeming to acknowledge that, along with interested countries, it could contribute more to space in the region. The author examines areas of shared interest over which parties might collaborate and the best way to achieve this: a gradual approach emulating the development (but not the present configuration) of ESA is recommended. Finally, he examines the legal framework within which cooperation might function, using a liaison committee to formulate and coordiante proposals. Action must be taken now if the region is not to fall behind in the development of space technologies.     

Improving Africa’s benefit from space applications: The European-African partnership

There is little overview of how space applications are utilized by African actors and how cooperation between Africa and Europe is organized and conducted. This article aims briefly to provide such an overview and concretely to make recommendations for institutional actors in European-African partnerships on the use of space applications for sustainable development. The Africa-EU partnership is analysed from a political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal standpoint and respective policy recommendations are drafted on this basis. No other continent can benefit more from space applications than Africa. It will be partnerships like the one between Europe and Africa that will be crucial for realizing this great potential.     

An international symbol for the sustained exploration of space

As humanity prepares to extend its reach beyond low-Earth-orbit for the first time since the 1970s, a new symbol of international cooperation is needed to further promote the message of peace and collaboration such exploration entails. The space race that occurred between the USSR and the USA is an ill-suited model for long-term sustained space exploration because it is too costly and too resource-intensive for a single nation to bear. While competition is healthy for technology development, the success of a sustained space exploration strategy lies beyond technological capabilities. It lies in international cooperation, space policy, and public support. Without these, no program can realistically achieve a sustained presence in space beyond low-Earth orbit. To this effect, this paper proposes a cost-effective first step in the form of a universal symbol which, when placed alongside national flags displayed on hardware and astronaut/cosmonaut/taikonaut flight-suits, would send a strong message to the world that space exploration is done for the benefit of humanity as a whole, not just for spacefaring nations. The “Blue Marble”, the first complete picture of Earth taken from space by humans in 1972, fits this universally appealing symbol. This symbol requires no political collaboration between countries, yet is an image that anyone, anywhere in the world, can relate to regardless of nationality, ethnic origin or religious beliefs. Placed on the shoulder pads of human ’nauts – ambassadors of planet Earth – or prominently displayed on spacebound hardware, this symbol would send a universal message to present and future generations that, in space, our planet is working together for the benefit of everyone.     

Ukrainian national space law from an international perspective

As one of the three former Soviet republics engaged in space activities, the Ukraine has had to formulate new national space legislation as a means of demonstrating a responsible attitude to the international security system, of harmonising its legislation with that of its international political and economic partners and of creating clear guidelines for investors. This article presents the background to the formation of Ukrainian space law, describes some of the new laws enacted and discusses these within the context of international space law. Particular attention is paid to the legal regulation of commercial activities, to dual-use issues and to the effect of international cooperation on Ukrainian space law development.     

CNES—the way forward: A new strategic plan

This article is based on the French space centre's (CNES) new strategic plan, which marks a shift in strategy. Guided in particular by changed political circumstances and the growing maturity of the space industry, the agency plans to renegotiate its relationships in all major sectors. While the inevitability of European integration and hence cooperation is acknowledged, there is a firm commitment to ensuring that French national and foreign policy is well served.