Design of optimal earth pole-sitter transfers using low-thrust propulsion

Recent studies have shown the feasibility of an Earth pole-sitter mission using low-thrust propulsion. This mission concept involves a spacecraft following the Earth's polar axis to have a continuous, hemispherical view of one of the Earth's poles. Such a view will enhance future Earth observation and telecommunications for high latitude and polar regions. To assess the accessibility of the pole-sitter orbit, this paper investigates optimum Earth pole-sitter transfers employing low-thrust propulsion. A launch from low Earth orbit (LEO) by a Soyuz Fregat upper stage is assumed after which solar electric propulsion is used to transfer the spacecraft to the pole-sitter orbit. The objective is to minimize the mass in LEO for a given spacecraft mass to be inserted into the pole-sitter orbit. The results are compared with a ballistic transfer that exploits manifold-like trajectories that wind onto the pole-sitter orbit. It is shown that, with respect to the ballistic case, low-thrust propulsion can achieve significant mass savings in excess of 200 kg for a pole-sitter spacecraft of 1000 kg upon insertion. To finally obtain a full low-thrust transfer from LEO up to the pole-sitter orbit, the Fregat launch is replaced by a low-thrust, minimum time spiral, which provides further mass savings, but at the cost of an increased time of flight.     

Mission analysis and systems design of a near-term and far-term pole-sitter mission

This paper provides a detailed mission analysis and systems design of a near-term and far-term pole-sitter mission. The pole-sitter concept was previously introduced as a solution to the poor temporal resolution of polar observations from highly inclined, low Earth orbits and the poor high-latitude coverage from geostationary orbit. It considers a spacecraft that is continuously above either the north or south pole and, as such, can provide real-time, continuous and hemispherical coverage of the polar regions. Being on a non-Keplerian orbit, a continuous thrust is required to maintain the pole-sitter position. For this, two different propulsion strategies are proposed, which result in a near-term pole-sitter mission using solar electric propulsion (SEP) and a far-term pole-sitter mission where the SEP thruster is hybridized with a solar sail. For both propulsion strategies, minimum propellant pole-sitter orbits are designed. In order to maximize the spacecraft mass at the start of the operations phase of the mission, the transfer from Earth to the pole-sitter orbit is designed and optimized assuming either a Soyuz or an Ariane 5 launch. The maximized mass upon injection into the pole-sitter orbit is subsequently used in a detailed mass budget analysis that will allow for a trade-off between mission lifetime and payload mass capacity. Also, candidate payloads for a range of applications are investigated. Finally, transfers between north and south pole-sitter orbits are considered to overcome the limitations in observations due to the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis that causes the poles to be alternately situated in darkness. It will be shown that in some cases these transfers allow for propellant savings, enabling a further extension of the pole-sitter mission.     

LISA — a study of the ESA cornerstone mission for observing gravitational waves

The primary objective of the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) mission is to detect and observe gravitational waves from massive black holes and galactic binaries in the frequency range 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻¹ Hz. This low-frequency range is inaccessible to ground-based interferometers because of the unshieldable background of local gravitational noise and because ground-based interferometers are limited in length to a few km. LISA is an ESA cornerstone mission and recently had a system study (Ref. 1) carried out by a consortium led by Astrium, which confirmed the basic configuration for the payload with only minor changes, and provided detailed concepts for the spacecraft and mission design. The study confirmed the need for a drag-free technology demonstration mission to develop the inertial sensors for LISA, before embarking on the build of the flight sensors. With a technology demonstration flight in 2005, it would be possible to carry out LISA as a joint ESA-NASA mission with a launch by 2010 subject to the funding programmatics. The baseline for LISA is three disc-like spacecraft each of which consist of a science module which carries the laser interferometer payload (two in each science module) and a propulsion module containing an ion drive and the hydrazine thrusters of the AOCS. The propulsion module is used for the transfer from earth escape trajectory provided by the Delta II launch to the operational orbit. Once there the propulsion module is jettisoned to reduce disturbances on the payload. Detailed analysis of thermal and gravitational disturbances, a model of the drag-free control and of the interferometer operation confirm that the strain sensitivity of the interferometer will be achieved.     

NanoSail-D: A solar sail demonstration mission

In the early to mid-2000s, NASA made substantial progress in the development of solar sail propulsion systems. Solar sail propulsion uses the solar radiation pressure exerted by the momentum transfer of reflected photons to generate a net force on a spacecraft. To date, solar sail propulsion systems were designed for large robotic spacecraft. Recently, however, NASA has been investigating the application of solar sails for small satellite propulsion. The NanoSail-D is a subscale solar sail system designed for possible small spacecraft applications. The NanoSail-D mission flew on board the ill-fated Falcon Rocket launched August 2, 2008, and due to the failure of that rocket, never achieved orbit. The NanoSail-D flight spare is ready for flight and a suitable launch arrangement is being actively pursued. This paper will present an introduction solar sail propulsion systems and an overview of the NanoSail-D spacecraft.     

Dawn′s exploration of Vesta

On 16 July 2011, after completing nearly four years of interplanetary flight, Dawn entered orbit around (4) Vesta, the second most massive body in the main asteroid belt. Dawn used solar electric propulsion to spiral to six different orbits to accomplish its science campaign. Although the transfers to progressively lower orbits presented significant challenges, all were executed smoothly. During its nearly 14 months in orbit, Dawn spiraled down to 210 km above the surface and back up before initiating the gradual departure to travel to dwarf planet (1) Ceres for a 2015 rendezvous. Dawn′s exploration of Vesta has shown it to be geologically complex and fascinating, resembling terrestrial planets more than typical asteroids. Among the principal features is a 500-km-diameter impact basin within which is the second tallest mountain known in the solar system. This paper presents Dawn′s operations at Vesta and summarizes the principal findings.     

Flight demonstration of new thruster and green propellant technology on the PRISMA satellite

The concept of a storable liquid monopropellant blend for space applications based on ammonium dinitramide (ADN) was invented in 1997, within a co-operation between the Swedish Space Corporation (SSC) and the Swedish Defense Research Agency (FOI). The objective was to develop a propellant which has higher performance and is safer than hydrazine. The work has been performed under contract from the Swedish National Space Board and ESA. The progress of the development has been presented in several papers since 2000.ECAPS, a subsidiary of the Swedish Space Corporation was established in 2000 with the aim to develop and market the novel “high performance green propellant” (HPGP) technology for space applications. The new technology is based on several innovations and patents w.r.t. propellant formulation and thruster design, including a high temperature resistant catalyst and thrust chamber.The first flight demonstration of the HPGP propulsion system will be performed on PRISMA. PRISMA is an international technology demonstration program with Swedish Space Corporation as the Prime Contractor.This paper describes the performance, characteristics, design and verification of the HPGP propulsion system for PRISMA. Compatibility issues related to using a new propellant with COTS components is also discussed. The PRISMA mission includes two satellites in LEO orbit were the focus is on rendezvous and formation flying. One of the satellites will act as a “target” and the main spacecraft performs rendezvous and formation flying maneuvers, where the ECAPS HPGP propulsion system will provide delta-V capability.The PRISMA CDR was held in January 2007. Integration of the flight propulsion system is about to be finalized.The flight opportunity on PRISMA represents a unique opportunity to demonstrate the HPGP propulsion system in space, and thus take a significant step towards its use in future space applications. The launch of PRISMA scheduled to 2009.     

Human exploration of near earth asteroids: Mission analysis for chemical and electric propulsion

This paper presents a mission analysis comparison of human missions to asteroids using two distinct architectures. The objective is to determine if either architecture can reduce launch mass with respect to the other, while not sacrificing other performance metrics such as mission duration. One architecture relies on chemical propulsion, the traditional workhorse of space exploration. The second combines chemical and electric propulsion into a hybrid architecture that attempts to utilize the strengths of each, namely the short flight times of chemical propulsion and the propellant efficiency of electric propulsion. The architectures are thoroughly detailed, and accessibility of the known asteroid population is determined for both. The most accessible asteroids are discussed in detail. Aspects such as mission abort scenarios and vehicle reusability are also discussed. Ultimately, it is determined that launch mass can be greatly reduced with the hybrid architecture, without a notable increase in mission duration. This demonstrates that significant performance improvements can be introduced to the next step of human space exploration with realistic electric propulsion system capabilities. This leads to immediate cost savings for human exploration and simultaneously opens a path of technology development that leads to technologies enabling access to even further destinations in the future.     

长征三号甲系列运载火箭高适应性发展——从总体与导航制导控制的视角

从总体与导航制导控制的视角,对长征三号甲系列运载火箭发展与成就进行了分析和小结。长征三号甲系列运载火箭,在长征三号运载火箭解决我国发射高轨道卫星有无问题的基础上,历经基本能力、适应能力、高适应能力的发展,具备了高轨道大型卫星运载能力,突破了从单一轨道面到三维空间各种轨道发射、从高轨卫星转移轨道到工作轨道发射、从地球轨道到地月轨道发射以及从航天技术试验到高可靠工程应用发射等关键技术,使我国运载火箭整体能力取得了地球全轨道发射、星际轨道发射等跨越发展。航天重大工程和国际商业发射表明,该系列运载火箭已进入世界高轨道航天器发射的运载火箭前列,并奠定了进一步开拓发展的基础。     

长时间在轨上面级动力系统关键技术研究

上面级动力系统提供用于变轨所需要的动力，同时提供姿态控制、推进剂沉底、末速修正功能所需要的动力，将上面级和北斗导航卫星一起送入预定轨道。回顾了从早期的上面级动力系统选型论证到后续的关键技术攻关过程，对比研究了泵压式与挤压式动力系统的技术优势，分析了动力系统研制过程中的主要关键技术，并对关键技术的应用情况进行了总结，最后提出了长时间在轨上面级动力系统的后续发展建议。     

High energy-density propulsion—reducing the risk to humans in planetary exploration

The potential benefits to humankind of space exploration are tremendous. Space is not only the final frontier but is also the next marketplace. The orbital space above Earth offers tremendous opportunities for both strategic assets and commercial development. The critical obstacle retarding the use of the space around the Earth is the lack of low cost access to orbit. Further out, the next giant leap for mankind will be the human exploration of Mars. Almost certainly within the next 30 years, a human crew will brave the isolation, the radiation, and the lack of gravity to walk on and explore the Red planet. Both of these missions will change the outlook and perspective of every human being on the planet. However, these missions are expensive and extremely difficult. Chemical propulsion has demonstrated an inability to achieve orbit cheaply and is a very high-risk option to accomplish the Mars mission. An alternative solution is to develop a high performance propulsion system. Nuclear propulsion has the potential to be such a system. The question will be whether humanity is willing to take on the challenge.     

First results of PRECISE—Development of a MEMS-based monopropellant micro chemical propulsion system

PRECISE focuses on the research and development of a MEMS-based monopropellant micro chemical propulsion system for highly accurate attitude control of satellites. The availability of such propulsion systems forms the basis for defining new mission concepts such as formation flying and rendezvous manoeuvres. These concepts require propulsion systems for precise attitude and orbit control manoeuvrability. Application-oriented aspects are addressed by two end-users who are planning a formation flying mission for which the propulsion system is crucial. Basic research is conducted aiming at improving crucial MEMS technologies required for the propulsion system. Research and development also focuses on the efficiency and reliability of critical system components. System analysis tools are enhanced to complement the development stages. Finally, the propulsion system will be tested in a simulated space vacuum environment. These experiments will deliver data for the validation of the numerical models.     

JIRAM, the image spectrometer in the near infrared on board the Juno mission to Jupiter

The Jovian InfraRed Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) has been accepted by NASA for inclusion in the New Frontiers mission "Juno," which will launch in August 2011. JIRAM will explore the dynamics and the chemistry of Jupiter's auroral regions by high-contrast imaging and spectroscopy. It will also analyze jovian hot spots to determine their vertical structure and infer possible mechanisms for their formation. JIRAM will sound the jovian meteorological layer to map moist convection and determine water abundance and other constituents at depths that correspond to several bars pressure. JIRAM is equipped with a single telescope that accommodates both an infrared camera and a spectrometer to facilitate a large observational flexibility in obtaining simultaneous images in the L and M bands with the spectral radiance over the central zone of the images. Moreover, JIRAM will be able to perform spectral imaging of the planet in the 2.0-5.0 microm interval of wavelengths with a spectral resolution better than 10 nm. Instrument design, modes, and observation strategy will be optimized for operations onboard a spinning satellite in polar orbit around Jupiter. The JIRAM heritage comes from Italian-made, visual-infrared imaging spectrometers dedicated to planetary exploration, such as VIMS-V on Cassini, VIRTIS on Rosetta and Venus Express, and VIR-MS on the Dawn mission.     

国外固体运载火箭主动力系统发展研究

统计了近10年来欧洲、日本、美国的固体运载火箭发射情况,系统分析了这些火箭使用的固体发动机性能参数,梳理了其发展脉络。这些国家和地区固体运载火箭主动力系统低成本的技术思路、模块化的发展方向、自动化的生产条件、完备的寿命评估体系,能够为我国运载火箭固体动力系统现阶段的使用、改进,以及未来的发展、规划提供参考和借鉴。     

Mission to Mars using integrated propulsion concepts: considerations, opportunities, and strategies

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the feasibility of a mission to Mars using the Integrated Propulsion Systems (IPS) which means to couple Nuclear-MPD-ISPU propulsion systems. In particular both mission analysis and propulsion aspects are analyzed together with technological aspects. Identifying possible mission scenarios will lead to the study of possible strategies for Mars Exploration and also of methods for reducing cost. As regard to IPS, the coupling between Nuclear Propulsion (Rubbia's engine) and Superconductive MPD propulsion is considered for the Earth-Mars trajectories: major emphasis is given to the advantages of such a system. The In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) concerns on-Mars operations; In Situ Propellant Utilization (ISPU) is foreseen particularly for LOX-CH4 engines for Mars Ascent Vehicles and this possibility is analyzed from a technological point of view. Tether Systems are also considered during interplanetary trajectories and as space elevators on Mars orbit. Finally strategic considerations associated to this mission are considered also.     

Development of hall thruster propulsion system for STSAT-3 application

Science and technology satellite-3 (STSAT-3) is being developed and is scheduled for launch in 2011. One of the primary objectives of its mission is to verify the performance of a hall thruster propulsion system (HPS) that uses xenon gas. According to its major functions, the HPS can be divided into several sub-modules. This paper presents the development and qualification of the hall effect thruster propulsion subsystem that includes a xenon feed system (XFS). The xenon feed system regulates the pressure down from the xenon propellant tank and supplies the xenon flows to the anode and cathode. The technology and xenon feed system developed for the STSAT-3 spacecraft will also be applicable to a variety of future electronic propulsion systems and micro-satellites. Details related to the overall development and performance results of the HPS are presented in this paper.     

搭建地月鹊桥的嫦娥四号中继星（英文）

The far side of the moon is a unique place for some scientific investigations. Chang'e 4 is a Chinese lunar far side landing exploration mission. Relay communication satellite, named as Queqiao, is an important and innovative part of Chang'e 4 mission. It can provide relay communication to the lander and the rover operating on the lunar far side to maintain their contacts with Earth. It was launched by LM-4 C launch vehicle at the Xichang Satellite Launch Center on May 21, 2018. After five precise orbit controls and a journey of more than 20 days, Queqiao inserted into final halo mission orbit around Earth-moon libration point 2, located about 65,000 km beyond the moon. It is the world's first communication satellite operating in that orbit. Up to now, Queqiao worked very well and provided reliable, continuous communication relay service for the lander and the rover to ensure the mission success of Chang'e 4 exploration mission. Via Queqiao, the lander and the rover were controlled to work by ground stations and obtained a great amount of scientific data. The mission overview, operation orbit selection, relay communication system design and flight profile were introduced in this article.     

载人登月飞行方案研究

根据载人登月任务有无地球轨道和月球轨道交会对接,将登月途径分为地球轨道交会-月球轨道交会、地球轨道交会-直接返回、地球轨道不交会-月球轨道交会,以及地球轨道不交会-月球轨道不交会四类,并对各自可能的演变登月方式进行了分析。对载人登月的质量规模及运载火箭需求进行了分析,讨论并比较了一次发射、基于环月轨道交会组装和基于近地轨道交会组装方案的时间窗口和登月方案,并给出了建议。研究可为我国载人登月任务方案选取提供参考。     

基于成本考虑的天地往返技术途径分析

采用能量分析方法,对天地往返成本的影响因素进行了分析。重点对入轨方式、发射方法和动力系统等因素进行了分析。提出了未来天地往返运输技术的研究设想。     

Optimization of space orbits design for Earth orbiting missions

In Earth orbiting space missions, the orbit selection dictates the mission parameters like the ground resolution, the area coverage, and the frequency of coverage parameters. To achieve desired mission parameters, usually Earth regions of interest are identified and the spacecraft is maneuvered continuously to visit only these regions. This method is expensive, it requires a propulsion system onboard the spacecraft, working throughout the mission lifetime. It also requires a longer time to cover all the regions of interest, due to the very weak thrust forces compared to that of the Earth's gravitational field. This paper presents a methodology to design natural orbits, in which the regions of interest are visited without the use of propulsion systems, depending only on the gravitational forces. The problem is formulated as an optimization problem. A genetic algorithm along with a second order gradient method is implemented for optimization. The design process takes into consideration the gravitational second zonal harmonic, and hence allows for the design of repeated Sun-synchronous orbits. The field of view of the payload is also taken into consideration in the optimization process. Numerical results are presented that demonstrates the efficiency of the proposed method.     

Competitive pricing for multiple payload launch services: the road to commercial space

The commercial launch industry is maturing into an international market that is highly price competitive. A common way to deal with the high cost of launch services is to use a single booster to place several payloads into orbit. This practice requires the launch provider to divide the cost of the shared mission between the customers. Unfortunately, the methods normally used to do this are inadequate. This paper addresses the question of how best to share launch costs. It examines the existing methods and introduces two alternative methods for this purpose. The new methods are demonstrated and shown to be superior.