外层空间自卫权行使的法律问题探究

正1外层空间自卫权行使的动因:外层空间军事化随着空间探索技术的发展,外层空间在国防、商业等方面的巨大优势正在逐渐被各国所重视。尽管国际社会一再呼吁各国在探索、开发外层空间时应遵循和平利用外层空间原则,但当前外层空间军事化已成为不争的事实。自美国与苏联分别于1959年和1962年发射军用照相侦察卫星起,外层空间军事化     

拉克斯:《外层空间法——制定当代法律的一种经验》(1972年英文版)

<正> 随着空间科技的飞速发展,外层空间法很快地突起,成为国际法的一个新的、重要的和迅速发展的领域。早在50年代初期,国际法学界就已开始了关于空间法的讨论,并且出现了这方面的一些著作。1957年第一颗人造地球卫星上天以后,关于这方面的讨论更趋热烈,     

第33届国际空间法学会年会召开

<正> 国际宇航联合会所属的国际空间法学会于今年10月6日至13日在德国德累斯顿举行第三十三届年会,我国际空间法学会会员邵天任、贺其治同志及陈佩洁同志随中国宇航学会代表团一同前往参加。一、会议的一般情况参加今年国际空间法学会的各国代表有一百多人,以美、德人数为最多。会议议题为: ①空间商业化的法律问题;②空间活动与保护全球环境的法律方面;③空间法的新近发展;④其他法律问题。     

第31届国际空间法学会年会

第31届国际空间法学会(IISL)于1988年10月8～15日在印度班加洛举行。我国外交部邵天任、贺其治前往参加。会议有4项议题:①和平利用外层空间的法律问题;②空间法与发展中国家的问题;③双边和区域性空间协定;④空间法的一般问题。会上提出了一些新论点和新动向,现简介如下。 1.在外空设立“勿进入区” (Keep—Out Zone)。具体规定如下:①在高5000公里以下的轨道上,外国卫星必须保持100公里或平面上     

美国谋求对外层空间的军事控制

今天的美国在各个领域里越来越依赖于各种应用卫星。从导弹的制导到商业交易，大量的军事、经济、社会活动通过卫星进行。因此美国国防部资深官员认为在外层空间取得军事优势将是美国武装力量的优先任务之一。1997年2月12日，美国国家安全工业协会和国防部共同发起了第二届空间政策与组织年会，美军航天司令部司令HowedEstes在会上的一些讲话很能反映美军目前对空间控制的一些理论和政策。他认为美军需要实现对外层空间的控制，并满足相关武器系统的要求，为在这方面保持领先地位而作出的任何决定军方都予以支持。但是由于一些国际条约的限…     

联合国外空委法律小组委员会第62届会议主要动向分析

<正>1基本情况联合国和平利用外层空间委员会（以下简称外空委）法律小组委员会第62届会议于2023年3月20—31日以线上线下结合形式举行。本届会议就与和平探索和利用外层空间有关的国家立法、空间法能力建设、空间资源、空间交通管理等16个议题进行了讨论。部分议题相关工作组（如空间资源活动所涉法律问题工作组等），在会议期间进行了闭门磋商。     

以国际环境法基本原则推进空间碎片治理

<正>当下，空间碎片领域面临着空间环境恶化、减缓战略停滞和主动清除计划饱受争议等现实问题。在现有外层空间法律规范不足以应对碎片问题的前提下，通过适用在地球环境治理中表现卓有成效的国际环境法基本原则，能有效补充与深化外空空间碎片治理理念。国际环境法基本原则对空间碎片治理有着重要的借鉴价值，能填补空间碎片治理法律原则的缺位，有力应对治理困境。将国际环境法基本原则延伸适用至外空环境、推动碎片治理软法的出台，坚持适用共同但有区别的责任原则、预防原则、无害原则以及国际合作原则，能为空间碎片问题提供不同的解决方案。     

联合国1982年国际空间会议本月在维也纳举行——美国国务院关于这次会议的简介

联合国1982年国际空间会议,即联合国第二次开发及和平利用外层空间会议将于今年8月9日—21日在奥地利的维也纳举行。将有140个国家的代表出席这次会议,它将是1968年以来第一次有关外层空间的盛会。会上将讨论和评价与外层空间有关的一系列问题,如空间科学的发展和空间技术的应用、国际合作等等。美国国务院最近就这次会议专门发表了一篇有关开发及和平利用外层空间的情况简介,下面是这篇简介的全文:     

《火星救援》中的空间法冷知识

美国科幻大片《火星救援》是去年年底最热卖的大片,因为片中涉及一些外空法律问题,本刊特别邀请中国空间法学会秘书长、国际空间法学会理事张振军对其中的一些错误知识点予以澄清,以免以讹传讹、误导观众。     

国际空间活动何以急需新规则

1国际空间活动中出现的新情况新问题 类似于当年人口迅速膨胀但缺少相应法律的美国西部荒野,外层空间(简称为太空)尤其是在地球轨道上各种人造飞行器迅速增长,但缺少相应的规则和协调手段.这将会增加出现意外事件、发生误解的风险,还有可能由此引发地面冲突.     

白宫发布的首份国家地月空间科技战略

地月空间为推进科学、技术和探索提供了巨大潜力，是人类活动的新区域。美国白宫科技政策办公室（OSTP）发布首份国家地月空间科技战略，为协调美国政府各部门及合作者在美国空间优先事项框架下开展负责任的、以和平为目的的、可持续的地月空间探索与利用，提供了早期共同愿景，并首次提出地月空间早期发展的4个最高优先级的科学和技术目标，包括:支持研究和开发，以实现未来地月空间的长期发展；扩大地月空间国际科技合作；将美国的空间态势感知能力拓展到地月空间；通过可扩展和可互操作的方式实施地月空间通信和定位、导航和授时，以促进地月空间科学发现、经济发展和国际合作。      

Capacity building in regional space cooperation: Asia-pacific space cooperation organization

The increasing gap in the space capabilities of different countries has led to the need for capacity building in modern times. Space capacity building of countries without or with limited space capacity via international cooperation with advanced spacefaring nations is a good practice towards intragenerational equity among all spacefaring countries, and between spacefaring and non-spacefaring countries at the same period of time. A case study is used here to show the current situation of the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) and its member states that are associated with their space capacity building. The study finds that neither the satellite technology development model developed by Wood and Weigel (2011) nor the model developed by Ercan and Kale (2017) is a good fit for the development of space capability in all of the developing countries. Therefore, using the APSCO member states as a case study may offer guidelines towards the space capacity building of other developing countries. Moreover, an in-depth analysis of the merits and flaws of APSCO’s capacity building programs through comparing them with similar projects carried out by the European Space Agency (ESA), the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) and some other countries is conducive to providing some references for regional cooperation in the field of space capacity building. While international space law and the APSCO Convention can provide the general principles for capacity building activities under the framework of APSCO, they are only relevant to the development of scientific and technological capacities for space and human resources rather than organizational development and legal frameworks. Some international soft laws can likewise provide guidance for the capacity building activities of APSCO and its member states in the areas of international direct television broadcasting, remote sensing and cooperative way. To enhance its and its member states’ space capabilities, APSCO, in the context of space commercialization and maintaining the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA), should establish a comprehensive internal regime that addresses scientific and technological capacity building for space, human resources, organizational development and legal frameworks, a flexible regime for international cooperation with other developed spacefaring nations and international organizations with relevant technical capabilities and an internal research center for space law, and actively expand its membership by embracing other economically or technologically developed spacefaring nations in the Asia-Pacific region.     

Space law education in China: Status quo,shortcomings and possible ways out

Space law education has an essential role in the space capacity building of a country because of its importance for human resources development in space law. Comparisons between Canada and China, the European Union and China and the United States of America (USA) and China in space law degree education, course, teaching methodology, institute and practice and communication platform are provided in an attempt to review some issues which exist within the Chinese space law educational system and to seek a better choice for China’s space law education reform. Chinese space law education has achieved noticeable progress over the past two decades. However, it is still limited in comparison to its counterparts in Europe and Northern America. The range of the space law degree education programmes and space-law-related courses is comparatively limited. A gap remains between space law education and practice in China. Chinese space law classes are still dominated by the teacher-centred teaching methodology, although several universities have some new teaching practices. The establishment of seven space law-related research institutes plays an increasingly important role in Chinese space law education, space law and policy research and legal advisory services for the Chinese government and non-governmental sectors. However, these institutes still have a long way to go in comparison with their counterparts in Europe and Northern America. While China has established domestic research platforms for space law communication through international cooperation, it does not provide space law practice platforms for space law education. While international space law does not provide a direct legal foundation for space law education in China, Chinese educational laws can lay a profound legal foundation for Chinese space law education. To promote its national expertise and capacity in space law, based on the three-pillar model and the experiences of its counterparts in North America and Europe, China should adopt a systematic and sustainable regime for its space law education.     

Capacity building in space law and space policy

A high level of expertise in space policy and law is required to initiate and keep pace with the expansion of space activities, including those undertaken by the private space industry. Space activities generally refer to those undertakings that are carried out with the use of several technologies for the exploration and utilization of outer space often for scientific, military, economic and social proposes within international and national policy and regulatory frameworks. Space policies and legal regimes determine the scope, nature, pace, possibility and development of space undertakings. Therefore, appropriate space policies and regulatory regimes, both at the international and national levels, are indispensable for the initiation, operation and enhancement of space activities. There are various regulatory models and approaches for regulating space activities, and for building capacity in space law and space policy. It is imperative to have the appropriate human resources and capabilities in the development and implementation of space policies and space legal regimes. This crucial requirement has been well recognized in the more advanced space-faring nations, but not to the same level in other space-faring or space-aspiring nations.     

From a lunar outpost to Mars: science, policy and the U.S. Space Exploration Initiative.

The U.S. Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) is aimed at the establishment of an outpost for humans on the Moon, followed by the human exploration of Mars. It also encompasses robotic missions to the Moon and Man that will precede and perhaps accompany human presence. Science plays a dual role in SEI. First, many scientific questions must be answered to insure the health and safety of human explorers. Second, scientific investigations will be among the central objectives of human explorers. A substantial body of U.S. policy on SEI has been announced by President Bush. Its implementation is coordinated by the U.S. National Space Council under the Chairmanship of Vice President Quayle. That policy directs the early focus of SEI to be on technology development, including the identification of "high leverage technologies," and the identification of alternative mission architectures. It also envisions international cooperation as an important beneficial aspect of SEI.     

Toward a global space exploration program: A stepping stone approach

In response to the growing importance of space exploration in future planning, the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Panel on Exploration (PEX) was chartered to provide independent scientific advice to support the development of exploration programs and to safeguard the potential scientific assets of solar system objects. In this report, PEX elaborates a stepwise approach to achieve a new level of space cooperation that can help develop world-wide capabilities in space science and exploration and support a transition that will lead to a global space exploration program. The proposed stepping stones are intended to transcend cross-cultural barriers, leading to the development of technical interfaces and shared legal frameworks and fostering coordination and cooperation on a broad front. Input for this report was drawn from expertise provided by COSPAR Associates within the international community and via the contacts they maintain in various scientific entities. The report provides a summary and synthesis of science roadmaps and recommendations for planetary exploration produced by many national and international working groups, aiming to encourage and exploit synergies among similar programs. While science and technology represent the core and, often, the drivers for space exploration, several other disciplines and their stakeholders (Earth science, space law, and others) should be more robustly interlinked and involved than they have been to date. The report argues that a shared vision is crucial to this linkage, and to providing a direction that enables new countries and stakeholders to join and engage in the overall space exploration effort. Building a basic space technology capacity within a wider range of countries, ensuring new actors in space act responsibly, and increasing public awareness and engagement are concrete steps that can provide a broader interest in space exploration, worldwide, and build a solid basis for program sustainability. By engaging developing countries and emerging space nations in an international space exploration program, it will be possible to create a critical bottom-up support structure to support program continuity in the development and execution of future global space exploration frameworks. With a focus on stepping stones, COSPAR can support a global space exploration program that stimulates scientists in current and emerging spacefaring nations, and that will invite those in developing countries to participate—pursuing research aimed at answering outstanding questions about the origins and evolution of our solar system and life on Earth (and possibly elsewhere). COSPAR, in cooperation with national and international science foundations and space-related organizations, will advocate this stepping stone approach to enhance future cooperative space exploration efforts.     

Legal aspects of planetary protection for Mars missions.

The planning and execution of manned and robotic missions to Mars present a wide range of jurisprudential issues. Provisions to prevent the disruption of natural celestial environments, as well as damage to the environment of Earth by the return of extraterrestrial materials, are important components of the law applicable to mankind's activities in outer space, and have been supplemented by scientifically instituted planetary protection policies. However, divergent legal regimes may exist, as the space treaties in force are neither uniform in their provisions, nor identical as to the states which have signed, ratified, or adopted the international agreements. The legal requirements applicable to a specific mission will vary depending on the entities conducting the program and specific mission profile. This article analyzes the divergent international legal regimes together with the factors which will influence the determination of the standards of conduct which will govern manned and robotic missions to Mars.     

转动惯量存在不确定性的挠性航天器动态自适应滑模姿态控制

针对存在转动惯量不确定性和外部干扰的挠性航天器,首先构造了一个部分状态观测器估计挠性模态,然后设计自适应律对转动惯量不确定性和外部干扰组成的函数的上界进行估计。最后,在设计的观测器和自适应律的基础上,建立了挠性航天器的基于部分状态观测器的自适应滑模姿态稳定控制律。采用Lyapunov方法证明了在挠性航天器存在转动惯量不确定性和外部干扰时, 所设计的自适应滑模姿态控制律能使闭环航天器姿态系统稳定。最后, 通过数值仿真例子验证了所提出方法的有效性。     

Metabolic energy required for flight.

This paper reviews data available from U.S. and U.S.S.R. studies on energy metabolism in the microgravity of space flight. Energy utilization and energy availability in space seem to be similar to those on Earth. However, negative nitrogen balances in space in the presence of adequate energy and protein intakes and in-flight exercise, suggest that lean body mass decreases in space. Metabolic studies during simulated (bed rest) and actual microgravity have shown changes in blood glucose, fatty acids, and insulin levels, suggesting that energy metabolism may be altered during flight. Future research should focus on the interactions of lean body mass, diet, and exercise in space and their roles in energy metabolism during space flight.     

Stability analysis of explicit guidance laws for space launch vehicles with varying thrust integrals

In this study, a stability analysis of the explicit guidance laws for space launch vehicles is performed with consideration of varying thrust integrals. Among various forms of explicit guidance, linear tangent guidance in its general form is selected and six different acceleration profiles are considered for this numerical experiment. A linear system modeling which includes all of the significant dynamic elements of a space launcher is performed to analyze the effect of the characteristics of thrust integrals on stability margins. Numerical results show that in an aspect of guidance stability, it is advantageous to have thrust integrals derived from increasing acceleration profiles, such as constant thrust case, which may be considered in the development of propulsion systems. Finally, time-domain simulation with the original nonlinear models is performed to verify the approach and the result shows that the nonlinear dynamics of the system is conserved well in the linear model.