Commercializing the International Space Station: current US thinking

This article provides an overview of NASA's plans to encourage commercial use of the International Space Station (ISS). It examines the reasons driving such commercialization and highlights those private companies currently most interested in undertaking profit-making operations on the station, as well as discussing those activities most likely to be seen as commercial possibilities. The steps NASA is taking to stimulate private interest are enumerated. Various unresolved issues are raised, such as the legal issues associated with commercial research, charging policy for in-orbit operations and ‘metering’ of in-orbit resources. It is noted that the international dimension of the ISS has thus far received little consideration in the USA.     

Integration of multiple research disciplines on the International Space Station.

The International Space Station will provide an extremely high-quality, long-duration microgravity environment for the conduct of research. In addition, the ISS offers a platform for performing observations of Earth and Space from a high-inclination orbit, outside of the Earth's atmosphere. This unique environment and observational capability offers the opportunity for advancement in a diverse set of research fields. Many of these disciplines do not relate to one another, and present widely differing approaches to study, as well as different resource and operational requirements. Significant challenges exist to ensure the highest quality research return for each investigation. Requirements from different investigations must be identified, clarified, integrated and communicated to ISS personnel in a consistent manner. Resources such as power, crew time, etc. must be apportioned to allow the conduct of each investigation. Decisions affecting research must be made at the strategic level as well as at a very detailed execution level. The timing of the decisions can range from years before an investigation to real-time operations. The international nature of the Space Station program adds to the complexity. Each participating country must be assured that their interests are represented during the entire planning and operations process. A process for making decisions regarding research planning, operations, and real-time replanning is discussed. This process ensures adequate representation of all research investigators. It provides a means for timely decisions, and it includes a means to ensure that all ISS International Partners have their programmatic interests represented.     

Guidance of the Scientific Equipment of the International Space Station to Objects under Study

Cosmic Research - The technology of guiding scientific equipment to objects under study using a steerable platform onboard the Russian segment of the International Space Station (ISS) is presented....     

Open for business: a new approach to commercialisation of the International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) is the result of collaboration between 15 countries [Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA) between the Governments of Canada, the United States of America, Japan, Russia and ESA member States, concerning co-operation on the civil International Space Station, 1998]. Originally planned as a scientific facility, a shift in policy of the partners has recently occurred towards commercialisation of the Station. This article is a response to this policy shift. Based on a report prepared by a Master of Space Studies class at ISU, it set outs to identify the major constraints in which the potential commercial user must operate and proposes solutions for both commercial user and the partner space agencies to facilitate this commercialisation process. At a time when spacefaring nations face reduced fiscal resources and increasing pressure from their constituencies to justify the huge costs of the ISS, commercialising utilisation seems a logical solution. Clearly, successful commercialisation can help recover some of the development and operating costs of the ISS. The structure of the article is divided into two main parts. The first part proposes new solutions to existing constraint to ISS commercialisation in areas of policy, law, technology and business. Its conclusions are integrated and unified into A New Approach towards ISS commercialisation. This approach is then applied in part two to two case studies: the International Space Satellite Servicing Station (I4S) and protein crystallisation. The article then concludes with a recommended approach to the future of ISS commercialisation.     

Some experimental progresses in the study of self-rewetting fluids for the SELENE experiment to be carried in the Thermal Platform 1 hardware

SELENE (SELf-rewetting fluids for thermal ENErgy management) is a microgravity experiment proposed to the European Space Agency (ESA) in response to the Announcement of Opportunities for Physical Sciences. Main objectives of the microgravity research onboard the International Space Station (ISS) include the quantitative investigation of heat transfer performances in model heat pipes and validation of adequate theoretical and numerical models. In particular the research is focused on “self-rewetting fluids”, i.e. fluid mixtures with unusual surface tension properties. This article summarizes preliminary ground-based research activities in preparation of the microgravity experiments. They include: (1) thermophysical properties measurements; (2) study of thermo-soluto-capillary effects in micro-channels; (3) numerical modeling; (4) measurements with optical (e.g. interferometric) and intrusive techniques; (5) surface tension-driven effects and thermal performances test on different capillary structures and heat pipes; and (6) breadboards development and support to definition of scientific requirements.     

Brazilian participation in the International Space Station (ISS) program: commitment or bargain struck?

The invitation to Brazil to join the International Space Station (ISS) program illustrates the way that foreign-policy makers in the USA favor short-term decisions over long-term commitments, while, in accepting the invitation, Brazil was also promoting other objectives. In taking the initiative to invite Brazil, President Clinton provided a unique opportunity to a middle-to-low-ranking spacefaring developing country to join the program as part of NASA's quota for the ISS. However, this action was the result of exchanges and bargains between the two countries, involving domestic and international interests on both sides—not all directly related to ISS activities—targeted at security and industrialization issues. These included the international non-proliferation regime, the commercialization of space systems and facilities (particularly Brazil's Alcantara Launch Center) and intellectual property.     

ATV交会飞行控制策略研究

"自动转移飞行器"(ATV)是欧洲航天局(ESA)服务"国际空间站"(ISS)的项目.ATV货运飞行器自动执行调相,交会与对接、分离、降轨,以及受控毁坏性再入.ATV对ISS的交会对接可脱离地面控制自主完成,ATV交会使命将朝向栽人航天飞行发展,高度自主性与严格安全性是ATV使命设计的主要特点.在自主交会飞行期间,飞行...     

The Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM) Systems Engineering Effort – A successful exercise in cheaper,faster and (hopefully) better systems engineering

The Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM) is the latest Space Robot developed by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and McDonald Detwiller Space and Advanced Robotics (MD Robotics, previously Spar Aerospace) for the International Space Station (ISS). The SPDM has presented its designers with a number of new challenges in performing the Systems Engineering effort required for a complex robotic system:(1) The SPDM initial design was started and attained various levels of maturity for various components under the Space Station Freedom environment, then the Program was stopped and finally restarted under the harsher environment in which the International Space Station is being built.(2) The SPDM is the first space robot to utilize previously developed and space certified robotic components, as well as components with high-commonality to the previously developed ones (electronics, S/W).(3) New requirements levied by the Customer during the negotiations leading to the Program re-start necessitated significant architectural changes versus the SPDM configuration `frozen' when the Program was shut down.(4) The SPDM is the first robotic system of this complexity that is being built under a Firm Fixed Price contract, with the commonality assumptions as one of the cost drivers.This combination of components of various pedigree, coupled with the constraints imposed by an FFP contract have been addressed by the designers through the definition of a novel approach to integrated Systems and Design Engineering.     

The International Space Station: a pathway to the future

Nearly six years after the launch of the first International Space Station element, and four years after its initial occupation, the United States and our 6 international partners have made great strides in operating this impressive Earth orbiting research facility. This past year we have done so in the face of the adversity of operating without the benefit of the Space Shuttle. In his January 14, 2004, speech announcing a new vision for America's space program, President Bush affirmed the United States' commitment to completing construction of the International Space Station by 2010. The President also stated that we would focus our future research aboard the Station on the long-term effects of space travel on human biology. This research will help enable human crews to venture through the vast voids of space for months at a time. In addition, ISS affords a unique opportunity to serve as an engineering test bed for hardware and operations critical to the exploration tasks. NASA looks forward to working with our partners on International Space Station research that will help open up new pathways for future exploration and discovery beyond low Earth orbit. This paper provides an overview of the International Space Station Program focusing on a review of the events of the past year, as well as plans for next year and the future.     

Preparing EMU for Space Station

In today's fiscally constrained environment, it can be expected that systems designed for one space program will increasingly be used to support other programs. The example of the U.S. extravehicular mobility unit (EMU), designed for use with the Space Shuttle, and now part of the baseline for the International Space Station (ISS) program, illustrates the adaption process. Certifying the Shuttle's EMU for use aboard ISS requires addressing three fundamental issues: Identifying new ISS requirements to be imposed on the EMU. Extending Shuttle's EMU on-orbit service interval to meet ISS's longer missions. Certifying Shuttle's EMU to meet new environments unique to ISS. Upon completion of the certification process, Shuttle's EMU will meet all requirements for supporting both the Shuttle and ISS program. This paper discusses the processes for addressing these issues and progress to date in achieving resolution.     

Physical sciences research plans for the International Space Station

The restructuring of the research capabilities of the International Space Station has forced a reassessment of the Physical Sciences research plans and a re-targeting of the major scientific thrusts. The combination of already selected peer-reviewed flight investigations with the initiation of new research and technology programs will allow the maximization of the ISS scientific and technological potential. Fundamental and applied research will use a combination of ISS-based facilities, ground-based activities, and other experimental platforms to address issues impacting fundamental knowledge, industrial and medical applications on Earth, and the technology required for human space exploration. The current flight investigation research plan shows a large number of principal investigators selected to use the remaining planned research facilities.     

Microgravity research results and experiences from the NASA/MIR space station program

The Microgravity Research Program (MRP) participated aggressively in Phase 1 of the International Space Station Program using the Russian Mir Space Station. The Mir Station offered an otherwise unavailable opportunity to explore the advantages and challenges of long duration microgravity space research. Payloads with both National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) and commercial backing were included as well as cooperative research with the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). From this experience, much was learned about long-duration on-orbit science utilization and developing new working relationships with our Russian partner to promote efficient planning, operations, and integration to solve complexities associated with a multiple partner program.

This paper focuses on the microgravity research conducted onboard the Mir space station. It includes the Program preparation and planning necessary to support this type of cross increment research experience; the payloads which were flown; and summaries of significant microgravity science findings.     

Canada and the International Space Station program: overview and status

The twelve months since IAF 2000 have been perhaps the most exciting, challenging and rewarding months for Canada since the beginning of our participation in the International Space Station program in 1984. The highlight was the successful launch, on-orbit check out, and the first operational use of Canadarm2, the Space Station Remote Manipulator System, between April and July 2001. The anomalies encountered and the solutions found to achieve this success are described in the paper. The paper describes, also, the substantial progress that has been made, during the twelve months since IAF 2000, by Canada as it continues to complete work on all flight-elements of its contribution to the International Space Station and as we transition into real-time Space Station operations support and Canadian utilization. Canada's contribution to the International Space Station is the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), the external robotic system that is key to the successful assembly of the Space Station, the maintenance of its external systems, astronaut EVA support, and the servicing of external science payloads. The MSS ground segment that supports MSS operations, training, sustaining engineering, and logistics activities is reaching maturity. The MSS Engineering Support Center and the MSS Sustaining Engineering Facility are providing real-time support for on-orbit operations, and a Canadian Payloads Telescience Operations Center is now in place. Mission Controllers, astronauts and cosmonauts from all Space Station Partners continue to receive training at the Canadian Space Agency. The Remote Multi Purpose Room, one element of the MSS Operations Complex, will be ready to assume backroom support in 2002. Canada has completed work on identifying its Space Station utilization activities for the period 2000 through 2004. Also during the past twelve months the CSA drafted and is proceeding with the approval of a Canadian Space Station Commercialization Policy. Canadian astronauts have now participated in three ISS assembly missions--Julie Payette on STS-96, Marc Garneau on STS-97, and Chris Hadfield on STS-100 in April 2001 during which he performed Canada's first EVA and the successful installation of the Space Station Remote Manipulator System.     

Dextre: Improving maintenance operations on the International Space Station

The Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM), known as “Dextre”, is currently slated to launch in February 2008 for deployment on the International Space Station (ISS) as the final component of Canada's Mobile Servicing System (MSS). Dextre's primary role on the Space Station is to perform repair and replacement (R&R) maintenance tasks on robotically compatible hardware such as Orbital Replaceable Units (ORUs), thereby eventually easing the burden on the ISS crew.This burden on the on-orbit crew translates practically into crew time being a limited resource on the ISS, and as such, finding ways to assist the crew in performing their tasks or offloading the crew completely when appropriate is a bonus to the ISS program. This is already accomplished very effectively by commanding as many non-critical robotics tasks as possible, such as powering up and free-space maneuvering of the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), known as “Canadarm2”, from the Ground.Thus, beyond its primary role, and based on an increasing clarity regarding the challenges of external maintenance on the ISS, Dextre is being considered for use in a number of ways with the objective of improving ISS operations while reducing and optimizing the use of crew time through the use of ground control for various tasks, pre-positioning hardware, acting as a temporary storage platform to break an Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA) day into manageable timelines, and extending the physical reach and range of the Canadarm2.This paper discusses the planned activities and operations for Dextre an rationale for how these will help optimize the use of crew resources on the ISS.     

Regulating ISS— An interdisciplinary essay

The International Space Station (ISS) is a multifaceted international project. Several space agencies from different countries work together in the Outer Space. This paper will illustrate the exciting questions arising from such a venture and therefore the challenge to incorporate a variety of issues into a legal order. The Paper is addressed to lawyers who need not necessarily be experts in space law, and also to space experts who have no legal background. It demonstrates the three layers of the ISS regime—from the “Intergovernmental Agreement” (IGA) as a “frame” with pillars and boundaries, over the “Memoranda of Understanding” (MOU) which rules in a more specific way, to the so-called “Implementing Arrangements” regulating the overall and single aspects of ISS in detail.The paper underlines questions of applicable jurisdiction, utilization rights and the rights on intellectual property onboard of the ISS. Furthermore the problem of liability in space flight is highlighted, also with a view to the different aspects of the liability issue, for example (internal) liability caused by programme delays (e.g. US Space Shuttle delays).In conclusion, the paper illustrates the situation of astronauts by the “Code of Conduct for the International Space Station Crew” and provides an example for the actual ISS Programme—an international cooperation in a highly demanding environment which will be a basis for future space ventures in many ways.     

Space station MMOD shielding

This paper describes the International Space Station (ISS) micro-meteoroid orbital debris (MMOD) impact shielding including the requirements for protection as well as technical approaches to meeting the requirements. Current activities in providing MMOD protection for ISS are described, including efforts to augment MMOD protection by adding shields on-orbit. Another activity is to observe MMOD impact damage on ISS elements and returned hardware, and to compare the observed damage with predicted damage using Bumper code risk assessment software. A conclusion of this paper is that ISS will be protected adequately from MMOD impact after completing augmentation of ISS shielding for service module, and after improving MMOD protection for Soyuz and Progress vehicles. Another conclusion is that impact damage observed to the ISS mini-pressurized logistics module matches the distribution of impacts predicted by Bumper code.     

Adaptive environmental control for optimal results during plant microgravity experiments

The SVET Space Greenhouse (SG)--the first and the only automated plant growth facility onboard the MIR Space Station in the period 1990-2000 was developed on a Russian-Bulgarian Project in the 80s. The aim was to study plant growth under microgravity in order to include plants as a link of future Biological Life Support Systems for the long-term manned space missions. An American developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS) was added to the existing SVET SG equipment in 1995 to monitor more environmental and physiological parameters. A lot of long-duration plant flight experiments were carried out in the SVET+GEMS. They led to significant results in the Fundamental Gravitational Biology field--second-generation wheat seeds were produced in the conditions of microgravity. The new International Space Station (ISS) will provide a perfect opportunity for conducting full life cycle plant experiments in microgravity, including measurement of more vital plant parameters, during the next 15-20 years. Nowadays plant growth facilities for scientific research based on the SVET SG functional principles are developed for the ISS by different countries (Russia, USA, Italy, Japan, etc.). A new Concept for an advanced SVET-3 Space Greenhouse for the ISS, based on the Bulgarian experience and "know-how" is described. The absolute and differential plant chamber air parameters and some plant physiological parameters are measured and processed in real time. Using the transpiration and photosynthesis measurement data the Control Unit evaluates the plant status and performs adaptive environmental control in order to provide the most favorable conditions for plant growth at every stage of plant development in experiments. A conceptual block-diagram of the SVET-3 SG is presented.     

空间站应用的发展及存在问题

简要介绍了国外载人空间站应用的发展和"国际空间站"应用的现状,重点总结和分析空间站应用面临的挑战性问题,包括应用人时不足,建设进度推迟,有效载荷配置不到位,运输能力不够,供电欠缺,设备和器材无序安装与存放,缺少合理建造与应用的综合规划和协调程序,以及潜在的设备故障与人为失误,同时,给出了解决这些问题的思路和途径。     

New microgravity fundamental physics research areas in the ISS era

NASA's microgravity fundamental physics program has used the Space Shuttle to perform high resolutions experiments in space. As we come to the end of the Shuttle era, we will begin to perform research aboard the ISS. A large stable of ground based experiments have been selected from NASA Research Announcements in a variety of disciplines. These investigations will form the backbone from which to select future flight candidates. Research in Laser Cooling and Atomic Physics will enable us to operate highly precise clocks in space. Low temperature physics experiments will use a liquid helium facility with a six-month lifetime. This facility can also support experiments in gravitational physics. Researchers in biological physics will be offered an opportunity to develop future experiments that can benefit from space experimentation. An overview of the future research directions and the benefits to the community of performing research aboard the ISS will be presented.