How do interplanetary shock impact angles control the size of the geoeffective magnetosphere?

In this paper, we investigate temporal and spatial magnetosphere response to the impact of interplanetary (IP) shocks with different inclinations and speeds on the Earth’s magnetosphere. A data set with more than 500 IP shocks is used to identify positive sudden impulse (SI⁺) events as expressed by the SuperMAG partial ring current index. The SI⁺ rise time (RT), defined as the time interval between compression onset and maximum SI⁺ signature, is obtained for each event. We use RT and a model suggested by Takeuchi et al. (2002) to calculate the geoeffective magnetospheric distance (GMD) in the shock propagation direction as a function of shock impact angle and speed for each event. GMD is a generalization of the geoeffective magnetosphere length (GML) suggested by Takeuchi et al. (2002), defined from the subsolar point along the X line toward the tail. We estimate statistical GMD and GML values which are then reported for the first time. We also show that, similarly to well-known results for RT, the highest correlation coefficient for the GMD and impact angle is found for shocks with high speeds and small impact angles, and the faster and more frontal the shock, the smaller the GMD. This result indicates that the magnetospheric response depends heavily on shock impact angle. With these results, we argue that the prediction and forecasting of space weather events, such as those caused by coronal mass ejections, will not be accurately accomplished if the disturbances’ angles of impact are not considered as an important parameter within model and observation scheme capabilities.     

电离层等效电流体系对行星际激波的响应研究

行星际激波是导致地球磁层-电离层系统发生扰动的重要原因之一,其可以通过对磁层-电离层系统电流体系的改变来影响地磁变化.本文采用全球三维磁流体力学数值模拟方法,分析了行星际激波作用下电离层等效电流体系的即时响应.模拟结果表明,在激波作用下伴随着异常场向电流对的产生,电离层在午前午后出现一对反向的等效电流涡.这对涡旋一边向极侧和夜侧运动,一边经历强度增强和减弱直至消失的过程.激波过后等效电流体系图像逐渐演化为激波下游行星际条件控制的典型图像.这个响应过程与行星际激波强度有关,激波强度越强,则反向的等效电流涡旋强度越大,寿命也就越短.      

地球磁场对太阳风扰动响应的研究

分别对行星际激波、太阳风动压增大事件和减小事件的地球磁场响应进行了比较. 分析结果表明, 同步轨道磁场对太阳风扰动在向阳面产生较强的正响应, 在背阳面 响应较弱且有时会出现负响应, 地磁指数SYM-H对太阳风扰动的响应为正响应. 同时还得出, 向阳侧同步轨道磁场响应幅度d Bz与地磁指数响应幅度d SYM-H、上下游动压均方差均具有较好的相关性. 地磁指数响应幅度与同步轨道磁场响应幅度相关关系在激波和动压增大事件中具有一致性, 动压减小事件出 现明显差异, 这说明激波和动压增大事件在影响地球磁场方面具有某种共性.      

Different space weather effects in anomalies of the high and low orbital satellites

Preliminary results of the EU INTAS Project 00810, which aims to improve the methods of safeguarding satellites in the Earth’s magnetosphere from the negative effects of the space environment, are presented. Anomaly data from the “Kosmos” series satellites in the period 1971–1999 are combined in one database, together with similar information on other spacecraft. This database contains, beyond the anomaly information, various characteristics of the space weather: geomagnetic activity indices (Ap, AE and Dst), fluxes and fluences of electrons and protons at different energies, high energy cosmic ray variations and other solar, interplanetary and solar wind data. A comparative analysis of the distribution of each of these parameters relative to satellite anomalies was carried out for the total number of anomalies (about 6000 events), and separately for high (5000 events) and low (about 800 events) altitude orbit satellites. No relation was found between low and high altitude satellite anomalies. Daily numbers of satellite anomalies, averaged by a superposed epoch method around sudden storm commencements and proton event onsets for high (>1500 km) and low (<1500 km) altitude orbits revealed a big difference in a behavior. Satellites were divided on several groups according to the orbital characteristics (altitude and inclination). The relation of satellite anomalies to the environmental parameters was found to be different for various orbits that should be taken into account under developing of the anomaly frequency models.     

Forecasting space weather: Predicting interplanetary shocks using neural networks

We are developing a system to predict the arrival of interplanetary (IP) shocks at the Earth. These events are routinely detected by the Electron, Proton, and Alpha Monitor (EPAM) instrument aboard NASA’s ACE spacecraft, which is positioned at Lagrange Point 1 (L1). In this work, we use historical EPAM data to train an IP shock forecasting algorithm. Our approach centers on the observation that these shocks are often preceded by identifiable signatures in the energetic particle intensity data. Using EPAM data, we trained an artificial neural network to predict the time remaining until the shock arrival. After training this algorithm on 37 events, it was able to forecast the arrival time for 19 previously unseen events. The average uncertainty in the prediction 24 h in advance was 8.9 h, while the uncertainty improved to 4.6 h when the event was 12 h away. This system is accessible online, where it provides predictions of shock arrival times using real-time EPAM data.     

Large geomagnetic storms of extreme solar event periods in solar cycle 23

During extreme solar events such as big flares or/and energetic coronal mass ejections (CMEs) high energy particles are accelerated by the shocks formed in front of fast interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs). The ICMEs (and their sheaths) also give rise to large geomagnetic storms which have significant effects on the Earth’s environment and human life. Around 14 solar cosmic ray ground level enhancement (GLE) events in solar cycle 23 we examined the cosmic ray variation, solar wind speed, ions density, interplanetary magnetic field, and geomagnetic disturbance storm time index (D_st). We found that all but one of GLEs are always followed by a geomagnetic storm with D_st  −50 nT within 1–5 days later. Most(10/14) geomagnetic storms have D_st index  −100  nT therefore generally belong to strong geomagnetic storms. This suggests that GLE event prediction of geomagnetic storms is 93% for moderate storms and 71% for large storms when geomagnetic storms preceded by GLEs. All D_st depressions are associated with cosmic ray decreases which occur nearly simultaneously with geomagnetic storms. We also investigated the interplanetary plasma features. Most geomagnetic storm correspond significant periods of southward B_z and in close to 80% of the cases that the B_z was first northward then turning southward after storm sudden commencement (SSC). Plasma flow speed, ion number density and interplanetary plasma temperature near 1 AU also have a peak at interplanetary shock arrival. Solar cause and energetic particle signatures of large geomagnetic storms and a possible prediction scheme are discussed.     

Propagation and interaction of interplanetary transient disturbances. Numerical simulations

We study the heliocentric evolution of ICME-like disturbances and their associated transient forward shocks (TFSs) propagating in the interplanetary (IP) medium comparing the solutions of a hydrodynamic (HD) and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) models using the ZEUS-3D code [Stone, J.M., Norman, M.L., 1992. Zeus-2d: a radiation magnetohydrodynamics code for astrophysical flows in two space dimensions. i – the hydrodynamic algorithms and tests. Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 80, 753–790]. The simulations show that when a fast ICME and its associated IP shock propagate in the inner heliosphere they have an initial phase of about quasi-constant propagation speed (small deceleration) followed, after a critical distance (deflection point), by an exponential deceleration. By combining white light coronograph and interplanetary scintillation (IPS) measurements of ICMEs propagating within 1 AU [Manoharan, P.K., 2005. Evolution of coronal mass ejections in the inner heliosphere: a study using white-light and scintillation images. Solar Physics 235 (1–2), 345–368], such a critical distance and deceleration has already been inferred observationally. In addition, we also address the interaction between two ICME-like disturbances: a fast ICME 2 overtaking a previously launched slower ICME 1. After interaction, the leading ICME 1 accelerates and the tracking ICME 2 decelerates and both ICMEs tend to arrive at 1 AU having similar speeds. The 2-D HD and MHD models show similar qualitative results for the evolution and interaction of these disturbances in the IP medium.     

Solar and interplanetary parameters of CMEs with and without type II radio bursts

We have analyzed 101 CMEs, and their associated ICMEs and interplanetary (IP) shocks observed during the period 1997–2005. The main aim of the present work is to study the interplanetary characteristics of metric and DH type II associated CMEs such as, shock strength, IP shock speed, ICME speed, stand off distance and transit time. Among these 101 CMEs, 38 events show both metric and DH type II bursts characteristics. There are no metric and DH type II association for 52 events. While DH type II alone is found in 7 cases, metric type II alone is found in 4 events. It is found that the mean speeds of CMEs increase progressively from CMEs without type II events to CMEs associated with metric and DH type IIs as suggested by Gopalswamy et al. (2005). In addition, we found that the speeds of ICMEs and IP shocks progressively increase in the following order: events without metric and DH type IIs, events with metric alone, events with DH alone and events with both metric and DH type IIs. Similarly the Mach number is found to increase in the same order. While there is not much change in the stand-off distance among these cases, it is minimum (∼18 R_⊙) for CMEs with speed greater than 2200 km/s. The above results confirm that more energetic CMEs can produce both metric and DH type IIs for which the interplanetary parameters such as mean values of ICME speed and IP shock speed and Mach number are found to be higher.     

Magnetospheric and ionospheric manifestations of interplanetary foreshocks

The geometry of a typical interplanetary shock front in the vicinity of the Earth’s orbit predicts that the leading edge of the foreshock region comes into contact with the magnetosphere a few hours ahead of geomagnetic sudden impulses (SI). There is reason to believe that the interaction of the magnetosphere with the foreshock leads to magnetic and ionospheric disturbances, which can be detected by ground-based instruments. We searched for specific precursors of SIs in data from the Scandinavian riometer network and in the short period geomagnetic pulsation data from mid-latitude magnetometers. We found that SIs were preceded by the following three features: (1) an increase in riometric absorption, (2) excitation of Pcl magnetic pulsations and (3) a spectral broadening of the Pc3 magnetic pulsations. Our observations may be useful for the study of acceleration processes in the solar wind. These observations are also of potential forecasting interest.     

行星际激波导致的磁尾等离子片中ULF波动事件

磁层中的超低频（ULF）波动在太阳风和磁层之间的能量输运过程中具有重要作用.ULF波动主要发生在内磁层，且内磁层中ULF波动影响粒子的加速及沉降，而在夜侧磁层尤其是磁尾等离子片中观测到的ULF波动比较少.基于中国自主磁层探测卫星TC-1的观测数据，发现了两例行星际激波导致的磁尾中心等离子片中ULF波动事件，并发现这两例ULF事例都包含很强的环向模驻波分量，与以往THEMIS卫星报道的同类事件观测特征相符.根据ULF波的观测特征，分析了这两例ULF波动的可能触发机制.研究结果有助于深入理解磁层对行星际激波的全球响应.      

Propagation of normal and faster CMEs in the interplanetary medium

We have analyzed 101 Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) events and their associated interplanetary CMEs (ICMEs) and interplanetary (IP) shocks observed during the period 1997–2005 from the list given by Mujiber Rahman et al. (2012). The aim of the present work is to correlate the interplanetary parameters such as, the speeds of IP shocks and ICMEs, CME transit time and their relation with CME parameters near the Sun. Mainly, a group of 10 faster CME events (V_INT > 2200 km/s) are compared with a list of 91 normal events of Manoharan et al. (2004). From the distribution diagrams of CME, ICME and IP shock speeds, we note that a large number of events tends to narrow towards the ambient (i.e., background) solar wind speed (∼500 km/s) in agreement with the literature. Also, we found that the IP shock speed and the average ICME speed measured at 1 AU are well correlated. In addition, the IP shock speed is found to be slightly higher than the ICME speed. While the normal events show CME travel time in the range of ∼40–80 h with a mean value of 65 h, the faster events have lower transit time with a mean value of 40 h. The effect of solar wind drag is studied using the correlation of CME acceleration with interplanetary (IP) acceleration and with other parameters of ICMEs. While the mean acceleration values of normal and faster CMEs in the LASCO FOV are 1 m/s², 18 m/s², they are −1.5 m/s² and −14 m/s² in the interplanetary medium, respectively. The relation between CME speed and IP acceleration for normal and faster events are found to agree with that of  and  except slight deviations for the faster events. It is also seen that the faster events with less travel time face higher negative acceleration (>−10 m/s²) in the interplanetary medium up to 1 AU.     

On electromagnetic phenomena in Mercury’s magnetosphere

Mercury has a small but intriguing magnetosphere. In this brief review, we discuss some similarities and differences between Mercury’s and Earth’s magnetospheres. In particular, we discuss how electric and magnetic field measurements can be used as a diagnostic tool to improve our understanding of the dynamics of Mercury’s magnetosphere. These points are of interest to the upcoming ESA-JAXA BepiColombo mission to Mercury.     

Plasma flow variations and energetic protons upstream of the earth’s bow shock: A statistical study

Foreshock is a special region located upstream of the Earth’s bow shock characterized by the presence of various plasma waves and fluctuations caused by the interaction of the solar wind plasma with particles reflected from the bow shock or escaping from the magnetosphere. On the other hand, foreshock fluctuations may modify the bow shock structure and, being carried through the magnetosheath, influence the magnetopause. During the years 1995–2000, the INTERBALL-1 satellite made over 10,000 hours of plasma and energetic particles measurements in the solar wind upstream of the Earth’s bow shock. We have sorted intervals according to the level of solar wind ion flux fluctuations and/or according to the flux of back-streaming energetic protons. An analysis of connection between a level of ion flux fluctuations and fluxes of high-energy protons and their relation to the IMF orientation is presented.     

Interplanetary shocks and sudden impulses during solar maximum (2000) and solar minimum (1995–1996)

In this work a study is performed on the correlation between fast forward interplanetary shock parameters at 1 Astronomical Unit and sudden impulse (SI) amplitudes in the H-component of the geomagnetic field, for periods of solar activity maximum (year 2000) and minimum (year 1995–1996). Solar wind temperature, density and speed, and total magnetic field, were taken to calculate the static pressures (thermal and magnetic) both in the upstream and downstream sides of the shocks. The variations of the solar wind parameters and pressures were then correlated with SI amplitudes. The solar wind speed variations presented good correlations with sudden impulses, with correlation coefficients larger than 0.70 both in solar maximum and solar minimum, whereas the solar wind density presented very low correlation. The parameter better correlated with SI was the square root dynamic pressure variation, showing a larger correlation during solar maximum (r = 0.82) than during solar minimum (r = 0.77). The correlations of SI with square root thermal and magnetic pressure were smaller than with the dynamic pressure, but they also present a good correlation, with r > 0.70 during both solar maximum and minimum. Multiple linear correlation analysis of SI in terms of the three pressure terms have shown that 78% and 85% of the variance in SI during solar maximum and minimum, respectively, are explained by the three pressure variations. Average sudden impulse amplitude was 25 nT during solar maximum and 21 nT during solar minimum, while average square root dynamic pressure variation is 1.20 and 0.86 nPa^1/2 during solar maximum and minimum, respectively. Thus on average, fast forward interplanetary shocks are 33% stronger during solar maximum than during solar minimum, and the magnetospheric SI response has amplitude 20% higher during solar maximum than during solar minimum. A comparison with theoretical predictions (Tsyganenko’s model corrected by Earth’s induced currents) of the coefficient of sudden impulse change with solar wind dynamic pressure variation showed excellent agreement, with values around 17 nT/nPa^1/2.     

An empirical model to predict the 1-AU arrival of interplanetary shocks

We extend the empirical coronal mass ejection (CME) arrival model of Gopalswamy et al. [Gopalswamy, N. et al. Predicting the 1-AU arrival times of coronal mass ejections, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 29207, 2001] to predict the 1-AU arrival of interplanetary (IP) shocks. A set of 29 IP shocks and the associated magnetic clouds observed by the Wind spacecraft are used for this study. The primary input to this empirical shock arrival model is the initial speed of white-light CMEs obtained using coronagraphs. We use the gas dynamic piston–shock relationship to derive the ESA model which provides a simple means of obtaining the 1-AU speed and arrival times of interplanetary shocks using CME speeds.     

Three-dimensional global simulation of multiple ICMEs’ interaction and propagation from the Sun to the heliosphere following the 25–28 October 2003 solar events

This study performs simulations of interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME) propagation in a realistic three-dimensional (3D) solar wind structure from the Sun to the Earth by using the newly developed hybrid code, HAFv.2+3DMHD. This model combines two simulation codes, Hakamada–Akasofu–Fry code version 2 (HAFv.2) and a fully 3D, time-dependent MHD simulation code. The solar wind structure is simulated out to 0.08 AU (18 Rs) from source surface maps using the HAFv.2 code. The outputs at 0.08 AU are then used to provide inputs for the lower boundary, at that location, of the 3D MHD code to calculate solar wind and its evolution to 1 AU and beyond. A dynamic disturbance, mimicking a particular flare’s energy output, is delivered to this non-uniform structure to model the evolution and interplanetary propagation of ICMEs (including their shocks). We then show the interaction between two ICMEs and the dynamic process during the overtaking of one shock by the other. The results show that both CMEs and heliosphere current sheet/plasma sheet were deformed by interacting with each other.     

磁扰日向阳面对流电场转向区位置的晨昏不对称性(STARE、TRIAD、AE-C观测综合分析)

本文通过STARE观测的晨不连续性及其与TRIAD观测的场向电流分界区、AE-C卫星观测的电场转向区位置的比较,提出了在高扰日向阳面对流电场转向区位置存在着晨不对称性——晨半面所处纬度低于昏半面.该现象间接说明向阳面磁层边界层也存在某种不对称性.并在观测基础上对可造成该不对称性的物理因子进行了探讨,认为行星际磁场螺线结构对重连区位置的影响及其产生的激波结构的晨昏不对称性很可能与本文中讨论的现象有一定联系.      

Dayside ionospheric uplift during strong geomagnetic storms as detected by the CHAMP,SAC-C,TOPEX and Jason-1 satellites

Ionosphere response to severe geomagnetic storms that occurred in 2001–2003 was analyzed using data of global ionosphere maps (GIM), altimeter data from the Jason-1 and TOPEX satellites, and data of GPS receivers on-board CHAMP and SAC-C satellites. This allowed us to study in detail ionosphere redistribution due to geomagnetic storms, dayside ionospheric uplift and overall dayside TEC increase. It is shown that after the interplanetary magnetic field turns southward and intensifies, the crests of the equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA) travel poleward and the TEC value within the EIA area increases significantly (up to ∼50%). GPS data from the SAC-C satellite show that during the main phase of geomagnetic storms TEC values above the altitude of 715 km are 2–3 times higher than during undisturbed conditions. These effects of dayside ionospheric uplift occur owing to the “super-fountain effect” and last few hours while the enhanced interplanetary electric field impinged on the magnetopause.     

Interplanetary shocks and geomagnetic activity during solar maximum (2000) and solar minimum (1995–1996)

Plasma and magnetic field parameter variations through fast forward interplanetary shocks were correlated with the peak geomagnetic activity index Dst in a period from 0 to 3 days after the shock, during solar maximum (2000) and solar minimum (1995–1996). Solar wind speed (V) and total magnetic field (B_t) were the parameters with higher correlations with peak Dst index. The correlation coefficients were higher during solar minimum (r² = 56% for V and 39% for B_t) than during solar maximum (r² = 15% for V and 12% for B_t). A statistical distribution of geomagnetic activity levels following interplanetary shocks was obtained. It was observed that during solar maximum, 36% and 28% of interplanetary shocks were followed by intense (Dst  −100 nT) and moderate (−50  Dst < −100 nT) geomagnetic activity, whereas during solar minimum 13% and 33% of the shocks were followed by intense and moderate geomagnetic activity. It can be concluded that the upstream/downstream variations of V and B_t through the shocks were the parameters better correlated with geomagnetic activity level, and during solar maximum a higher relative number of interplanetary shocks can be followed by intense geomagnetic activity than during solar minimum. One can extrapolate, for forecasting goals, that during a whole solar cycle a shock has a probability of around 50% to be followed by intense/moderate geomagnetic activity.     

异常SSC事件的行星际原因分析

磁暴急始(SSC)是强烈太阳风动压或行星际激波与磁层相互作用的结果.通常SSC事件的上升时间在4～10 min,我们把上升时间超过15 min的SSC事件称为异常SSC事件.本文利用地磁SYM-H指数鉴别出了5个有地磁观测历史以来发生的上升时间大于15 min的异常SSC事件,并利用Wind,ACE,IMP 8,Goes,Geotail多点卫星太阳风观测数据和地磁观测数据,分析了异常SSC事件的行星际原因.结果表明,异常SSC事件通常都是强烈行星际扰动引起的,5个异常SSC事件有4个对应于行星际激波,有3个对应于多步太阳风动压跃变,有1个对应于行星际电场大幅度变化;由行星际激波产生的异常SSC事件,其上升时间依赖于行星际激波的方向,方向相对于日地连线越偏,上升时间越长;异常SSC事件上升时间与行星际磁场方向关系不明显.