Nucleation processes and aerosol chemistry

As the result of many observable optical phenomena, the occasional existence of upper atmospheric aerosols has been known since the beginning of the Century. Nevertheless, it is only during the last two decades that their persistent nature and extent of global distribution have become recognized. This review is addressed to the chemistry of upper atmospheric aerosols with particular attention to the chemical reactions and nucleation mechanisms responsible for their formation.Considering the stratosphere, it is now generally agreed that sulfate, mainly in the form of sulfuric acid, represents the single most abundant constituent of stratospheric aerosols. There is now strong evidence that these aerosols are formed in situ from sulfur bearing gases oxidized by free radicals. The various nucleation processes of atmospheric importance are reviewed, and it is shown that heteromolecular nucleation processes are almost certainly responsible for new particle formation in the stratosphere.The nature, and even existence, of aerosol layers above the stratosphere is less certain. The influx of extraterrestrial materials into the Earth atmosphere is estimated to be in the order of 50 to 500 tons per day. Considerations are given to the possible mechanisms which convert these materials to aerosol size particles. Although these particles provide one possible explanation for the appeareance of noctilucent clouds, nucleation about ions, most probably H₃O⁺ hydrates, is a strong contender as a more plausible formation mechanism. Considerable attention is given to this important atmospheric process, where it is shown that chemical forces contribute to the stability of the prenucleation clusters and the overall height of the energy barrier to nucleation. Finally, the role of aerosols in the sodium and other cycles of trace upper atmospheric constituents, is discussed.This research was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and partially financed by the Department of Transportation and the National Science Foundation under interagency agreements.     

The Role of Dynamics in Solar Forcing

This paper reviews the solar influence on climate through stratospheric dynamical processes. There are two possible processes, both being a consequence of the wave-mean flow interaction in the upper stratosphere. One involves changes in the vertical propagation of planetary waves and the resultant tropospheric circulation change in the extratropics of the winter hemisphere. The other involves change in the global meridional circulation in the stratosphere and associated convective activity change in the tropics. These processes have been discussed on an 11-year solar cycle, but they are also applicable for centennial-scale solar influence on climate.     

Stratospheric dust and its relationship to the meteoric influx

A review of measurements sensitive to dust in the stratosphere is presented with special emphasis on the data obtained during the last 10 years. The measurements made by indirect techniques such as light scattering tend to show more stratospheric dust than the measurements obtained by direct sampling techniques, although this interpretation is somewhat complicated by the injection of dust from the Bali eruption in 1963. The discrepancy is interpreted as indicating that the stratospheric dust smaller than a few microns diameter is volital. Recent direct experimental evidence of the author supports this conclusion.The size distribution of stratospheric dust is presented as a composite of the results of several observers. A natural break in the distribution at a size of about 5 diameter is interpreted as indicating that the smaller dust is terrestrial in origin, while the larger dust is meteoric in origin. Other evidence is presented to support this conclusion. A comparison with particle flux measurements at 100 km and higher indicates that the meteoric component of the stratospheric dust is ablation products rather than single particles that have survived entry into the atmosphere. It is also argued that the small particles accounting for the high flux as measured by rocket and satellite microphone techniques are not present in the stratosphere.     

Early Data from Aura and Continuity from Uars and Toms

Aura, the last of the large EOS observatories, was launched on July~15, 2004. Aura is designed to make comprehensive stratospheric and tropospheric composition measurements from its four instruments, HIRDLS, MLS, OMI and TES. These four instruments work in synergy to provide data on ozone trends, air quality and climate change. The instruments observe in the nadir and limb and provide the best horizontal and vertical resolution ever achieved from space. After over one year in orbit the instruments are nearly operational and providing data to the scientific community. We summarize the mission, instruments, and initial results and give examples of how Aura will provide continuity to earlier chemistry missions.     

The Influence of Total Solar Irradiance on Climate

To estimate the effect of the solar variability on the climate, two estimates of the solar intensity variations during the last three centuries have been used as forcing in numerical simulations. The model employed to carry out the experiments was the same coupled global ocean-atmosphere model used in a number of studies to assess the effect of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases on climate. The near surface temperature and the tropospheric temperature distribution shows a clear response to the variability of the solar input. Even the thermohaline circulation reacts on the large amplitudes in the forcing. In the stratosphere, the response pattern is similar as in the observations, however, the 11-year cycle found in the forcing data does not excite an appreciable response. This might be due to the missing parameterisation of the increase in the UV-radiation at the solar cycle maximum and the connected increase of the stratospheric ozone concentration.     

Solar Influences on Dynamical Coupling Between the Stratosphere and Troposphere

We use a simplified atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) to investigate the response of the lower atmosphere to thermal perturbations in the lower stratosphere. The results show that generic heating of the lower stratosphere tends to weaken the sub-tropical jets and the tropospheric mean meridional circulations. The positions of the jets, and the extent of the Hadley cells, respond to the distribution of the stratospheric heating, with low latitude heating displacing them poleward, and uniform heating displacing them equatorward. The patterns of response to the low latitude heating are similar to those found to be associated with solar variability in previous observational data analysis, and to the effects of varying solar UV radiation in sophisticated AGCMs. In order to investigate the chain of causality involved in converting the stratospheric thermal forcing to a tropospheric climate signal we conduct an experiment which uses an ensemble of model spin-ups to analyse the time development of the response to an applied stratospheric perturbation. We find that the initial effect of the change in static stability at the tropopause is to reduce the eddy momentum flux convergence in this region. This is followed by a vertical transfer of the momentum forcing anomaly by an anomalous mean circulation to the surface, where it is partly balanced by surface stress anomalies. The unbalanced part drives the evolution of the vertically integrated zonal flow. We conclude that solar heating of the stratosphere may produce changes in the circulation of the troposphere even without any direct forcing below the tropopause. We suggest that the impact of the stratospheric changes on wave propagation is key to the mechanisms involved.     

The Response of the Middle Atmosphere to Solar Cycle Forcing in the Hamburg Model of the Neutral and Ionized Atmosphere

This paper studies the response of the middle atmosphere to the 11-year solar cycle. The study is based on numerical simulations with the Hamburg Model of the Neutral and Ionized Atmosphere (HAMMONIA), a chemistry climate model that resolves the atmosphere from the Earth’s surface up to about 250 km. Results presented here are obtained in two multi-year time-slice runs for solar maximum and minimum conditions, respectively. The magnitude of the simulated annual and zonal mean stratospheric response in temperature and ozone corresponds well to observations. The dynamical model response is studied for northern hemisphere winter. Here, the zonal mean wind change differs substantially from observations. The statistical significance of the model’s dynamical response is, however, poor for most regions of the atmosphere. Finally, we discuss several issues that render the evaluation of model results with available analyses of observational data of the stratosphere and mesosphere difficult. This includes the possibility that the atmospheric response to solar variability may depend strongly on longitude.     

Amplification of the influence of solar flux variations on the winter stratosphere by planetary waves

Recent observational evidence has suggested that variations in solar activity may affect winter stratospheric polar ozone and temperature levels. The paucity of direct sunlight available during this season points strongly to a dynamical mechanism. We have carried out several large ensemble experiments within the middle atmosphere and the coupled middle atmosphere and lower thermosphere to simulate the radiative/dynamical coupling via planetary waves for a range of solar fluxes. In the former case, the model response in the winter stratosphere was linear and of the order of the summer stratopause forcing, whilst in the latter, the level of correlation in the winter stratosphere remained high, but was diluted over a wider volume. The inclusion of the upper atmosphere enhanced the winter polar stratospheric response by a factor of three.     

Large scale circulation patterns of the stratosphere

On the basis of analyses of the geographical, vertical and annual distribution for the northern hemisphere temperatures, geopotential heights, and winds at stratospheric pressure levels the general circulation patterns of the stratosphere are presented. Special attention is given to the outstanding features of stratospheric midwinter warmings and their variations in time, space, and intensity. The effects of the quasi-biennial oscillation at stratospheric levels are described. Finally some aspects of the observational problems are discussed.     

The Influence of the 11-year Solar Cycle on the Stratosphere Below 30 km: a Review

The NCEP/NCAR re-analyses of the global data as high as 10hPa have made it possible to examine the influence of the 11-year sunspot cycle on the lower stratosphere over the entire globe. Previously, the signal of the solar cycle had been detected in the temperatures and heights of the stratosphere at 30hPa and below on the Northern Hemisphere by means of a data set from the Freie Universität Berlin. The global re-analyses show that the signal exists on the Southern Hemisphere too, and that it is almost a mirror image of that on the Northern Hemisphere. The largest temperature correlations with the solar cycle move from one summer hemisphere to the other, and the largest height correlations move poleward within each hemisphere from winter to summer.The correlations are weakest over the whole globe in the northern winter. If, however, one divides the data into the winters when the equatorial Quasi-Biennial Oscillation was easterly or westerly, the arctic correlations become positive and large in the west years, but insignificantly small over the rest of the earth. The correlations in the east years are negative in the Arctic but positive in the subtropics and tropics on both hemispheres.The difference between the east and west years in January-February can be ascribed to the fact that the dominant stratospheric teleconnection and the solar influence work in the same direction in the east years but oppose each other in the west years.NCAR is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

平流层浮空器的热特性与研究现状

研究平流层浮空器热状况的形成机制与特性是进行热控制设计和研究热控制技术的前提,对平流层浮空器技术的发展具有重要作用。在分析平流层对流与辐射热环境特性的基础上,运用传热学基本原理分析了浮空器热状况的复杂形成机制与影响因素。评述了浮空器热特性及其控制技术的研究现状,介绍了相关研究方法、热模型与主要结果,分析了平流层浮空器热特性研究得出的基本认识与存在的问题,指出了应进一步开展的研究方向。     

平流层飞艇环境适应性评价模型

阐述了平流层特别是20km高度左右平流层的环境特点,分析了各种环境因素对长期在此空域中驻留飞行的平流层飞艇性能的影响,在此基础上,建立了平流层飞艇环境适应性评价指标体系。并针对其各评价指标的物理意义不同且数量级相差较大的特点提出了基于物理规划和层次分析法相结合的综合评价模型。算例和分析结论表明:抗风速度余量和产生消耗能量比在平流层飞艇对其飞行环境的适应能力评价中占有重要比重,应成为飞艇总体方案设计和论证时的重点关注指标。     

Impact of Solar Activity on Stratospheric Ozone and NO2 Observed by Gomos/Envisat

Energetic proton precipitation occurring during solar events can increase the production of odd nitrogen in the upper stratosphere and mesosphere. A very intense solar proton event (SPE) occurred on 28 October 2003. Its impact on the composition of the middle atmosphere was observed in details due to the availability of several space instruments. Here we present GOMOS observations of a strong NO₂increase and a related ozone decrease in the upper stratosphere at north polar latitude. The perturbation of the chemical composition of the stratosphere was observed until the middle of December 2003. A strong NO₂ increase was also observed in the south polar vortex in June-July 2003. It is tentatively attributed to the effect of an SPE with protons of moderate energy occurring on 29 May 2003. If this hypothesis is confirmed, it will imply that the global effect of SPEs on the composition of the stratosphere is underestimated when only strong energy SPEs are considered.     

Satellite Measurements of Middle Atmospheric Impacts by Solar Proton Events in Solar Cycle 23

Solar cycle 23 was extremely active with seven of the largest twelve solar proton events (SPEs) in the past forty years recorded. These events caused significant polar middle atmospheric changes that were observed by a number of satellites. The highly energetic protons produced ionizations, excitations, dissociations, and dissociative ionizations of the background constituents in the polar cap regions (>60 degrees geomagnetic latitude), which led to the production of HO_x (H, OH, HO₂) and NO_y (N, NO, NO₂, NO₃, N₂O₅, HNO₃, HO₂NO₂, BrONO₂, ClONO₂). The HO_x increases led to short-lived ozone decreases in the polar mesosphere and upper stratosphere due to the short lifetimes of the HO_x constituents. Polar middle mesospheric ozone decreases greater than 50 % were observed and computed to last for hours to days due to the enhanced HO_x. The NO_y increases led to long-lived polar stratospheric ozone changes because of the long lifetime of the NO_y family in this region. Upper stratospheric ozone decreases of >10 % were computed to last for several months past the solar events in the winter polar regions because of the enhanced NO_y.     

Organic Ices in Titan’s Stratosphere

Titan’s stratospheric ice clouds are by far the most complex of any observed in the solar system, with over a dozen organic vapors condensing out to form a suite of pure and co-condensed ices, typically observed at high winter polar latitudes. Once these stratospheric ices are formed, they will diffuse throughout Titan’s lower atmosphere and most will eventually precipitate to the surface, where they are expected to contribute to Titan’s regolith.Early and important contributions were first made by the InfraRed Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) on Voyager 1, followed by notable contributions from IRIS’ successor, the Cassini Composite InfraRed Spectrometer (CIRS), and to a lesser extent, from Cassini’s Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) and the Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) instruments. All three remote sensing instruments made new ice cloud discoveries, combined with monitoring the seasonal behaviors and time evolution throughout Cassini’s 13-year mission tenure.A significant advance by CIRS was the realization that co-condensing chemical compounds can account for many of the CIRS-observed stratospheric ice cloud spectral features, especially for some that were previously puzzling, even though some of the observed spectral features are still not well understood. Relevant laboratory transmission spectroscopy efforts began just after the Voyager encounters, and have accelerated in the last few years due to new experimental efforts aimed at simulating co-condensed ices in Titan’s stratosphere. This review details the current state of knowledge regarding the organic ice clouds in Titan’s stratosphere, with perspectives from both observational and experimental standpoints.     

The Planets and Titan Observed by ISO

Infrared spectroscopic observations of planets and Saturn's satellite Titan with the Infrared Space Observatory led to many significant discoveries that improved our understanding on the formation, physics and chemistry of these objects. The prime results achieved by ISO are: (1) a new and consistent determination of the D/H ratios on the giant planets and Titan; (2) the first precise measurement of the ¹⁵N/¹⁴N ratio in Jupiter, a valuable indicator of the protosolar nitrogen isotopic ratio; (3) the first detection of an external oxygen flux for all giant planets and Titan; (4) the first detection of some stratospheric hydrocarbons (CH₃, C₂H₄, CH₃C₂H, C₄H₂, C₆H₆); (5) the first detection of tropospheric water in Saturn; (6) the tentative detection of carbonate minerals on Mars; (7) the first thermal lightcurve of Pluto. Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom), and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.     

Long Term Climate Records from Polar Ice

One of the great challenges in climate research is to investigate the principal mechanisms that control global climatic changes and an effective way to learn more about it, is the reconstruction of past climate changes. The most important sources of information about such changes and the associated composition of the atmosphere are the two large ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica. Analysis of ice cores is the most powerful means we have to determine how climate has changed over the last few climatic cycles, and to relate this to changes in atmospheric composition, in particular to concentrations of the principal greenhouse gases – CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O (carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide).Transitions from cold ice age climates to warmer interstadials have always been accompanied by an increase of the atmospheric concentration of the three principal greenhouse gases. This increase has been, at least for CO₂, vital for the ending of glacial epochs. A highly simplified course of events for the past four transitions would then be as follows: first, changing orbital parameters initiated the end of the glacial epoch; second, an increase in greenhouse gases then amplified the weak orbital signal; third, in the second half of the transition, warming was further amplified by decreasing albedo, caused by melting of the large ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere going parallel with a change of the ocean circulation.The isotopic records of Greenland ice cores show evidence for fast and drastic climatic changes during the last glacial epoch. Possible causes and mechanisms of such changes and their significance as global climatic events are discussed here. Ice core results also enable the reaction of the environment to past global changes to be investigated.It will also be discussed how reliable stable isotope records are as a local temperature proxy and how representative paleoclimatic results from Greenland and Antarctica are in relation to global climate.     

The Effect of Solar UV Irradiance Variations on the Earth's Atmosphere

The response of the lower and middle atmosphere to variations in solar irradiance typical of those observed to take place over the 11-year activity cycle has been investigated. The effects on radiative heating rates of changing total solar irradiance, solar spectral irradiance and two different assumptions concerning stratospheric ozone have been studied with a radiative transfer code. The response in the stratosphere depends on the changes specified in the ozone distribution which is not well known. A general circulation model (GCM) of the atmosphere up to 0.1 mbar (about 65 km) has been used to study the impacts of these changes on the thermodynamical structure. The results in the troposphere are very similar to those reported by Haigh99 using a quite different GCM. In the middle atmosphere the model is able to reproduce quite well the observed seasonal evolution of temperature and wind anomalies. Calculations of radiative forcing due to solar variation are presented. These show that the thermal infrared component of the forcing, due to warming of the stratosphere, is important but suggest a near balance between the longwave and shortwave effects of the increased ozone so that ozone change may not be important for net radiative forcing. However, the structure of the ozone change does affect the detailed temperature response and the spectral composition of the radiation entering the troposphere.     

Observations of Stratosphere-Troposphere Coupling During Major Solar Eclipses from FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC Constellation

Sudden tropospheric cooling and induced stratospheric warming were found during the 22 July 2009 total solar eclipse. Can the 22 July 2009 hallmark also be seen in other major solar eclipses? Here we hypothesize that the tropospheric cooling and the stratospheric warming can be predicted to occur during a major solar eclipse event. In this work we use the FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC (F3C) Global Positioning System (GPS) radio occultation (RO) data to construct eclipse-time temperature profiles before, during, and after the passages of major solar eclipses for the years 2006–2010. We use four times a day of meteorological analysis from the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) global meteorological analysis to construct non-eclipse effect temperature profiles for the same eclipse passages. The eclipse effects were calculated based on the difference between F3C and ECMWF profiles. A?total of five eclipse cases and thirteen non-eclipse cases were analyzed and compared. We found that eclipses cause direct thermal cooling in the troposphere and indirect dynamic warming in the stratosphere. These results are statistically significant. Our results show ?0.6 to ?1.2°C cooling in the troposphere and 0.4 to 1.3°C warming in the middle to lower stratosphere during the eclipses. This characteristic stratosphere-troposphere coupling in temperature profiles represent a distinctive atmospheric responses to the solar eclipses.     

平流层电动机控制器热特性仿真分析和实验

为得到某电动机控制器在平流层低温低气压环境下工作时的热特性,开展了基于软件Icepak的热仿真分析,并通过地面环境模拟实验和平流层飞行实验对仿真模型进行了验证,仿真结果与实验结果基本吻合。结果表明:控制器的热设计可以满足保温和散热要求;在平流层低气压条件下,内部风扇可有效地保持控制器内部温度的均衡;平流层高度的太阳辐射对控制器内部温度分布有较大影响,在进行热设计时应予以考虑。研究结果为平流层电动机控制器的工程应用提供重要的参考依据。