A low-cost femtosatellite to enable distributed space missions

A new class of distributed space missions is emerging which requires hundreds to thousands of satellites for real-time, distributed, multi-point sensing to accomplish long-awaited remote sensing and science objectives. These missions, stymied by the lack of a low-cost mass-producible solution, can become reality by merging the concepts of distributed satellite systems and terrestrial wireless sensor networks. However, unlike terrestrial sensor nodes, space-based nodes must survive unique environmental hazards while undergoing complex orbital dynamics. A novel sub-kilogram very small satellite design is needed to meet these requirements. Sub-kilogram satellite concepts are developing elsewhere, such as traditional picosatellites and microengineered aerospace systems. Although viable technical solutions, these technologies currently come at a high cost due to their reliance on high-density technology or custom manufacturing processes. While evaluating these technologies, two untapped technology areas became evident that uniquely encompass low cost and mass producibility by leveraging existing commercial production techniques: satellite-on-a-chip (SpaceChip) and satellite-on-a-printed circuit board (PCBSat). This paper focuses on the design, build, and test results of a prototype PCBSat with a prototype unit cost less than $300. The paper concludes with mission applications and future direction.     

Solar wind-driven electron radiation belt response functions at 100-min time scales

We present a simple yet numerically robust technique, using autoregressive linear filters, to remove unwanted “colored noise” from solar wind and radiation belt electron data at sub-daily resolution. The remaining signal is then studied using finite impulse response linear prediction filters to represent the driven portion of the linear dynamics that describe the coupling between solar wind speed and electron flux. Sub-daily resolution response profiles covering magnetic L-shells between 1.1 and 8.0 R_E are presented which are consistent with daily resolution response functions. Namely, while there is strong global coherence governing electron flux dynamics, there are at least two distinct responses. The first response is an immediate dropout of electrons between L = 4 and L = 7 that is at least a partly adiabatic effect associated with enhancements in the ring current. This is followed by a 1–2 day delayed enhancement across the same L-shells that is likely a result of increased radial diffusion. The second response is an immediate enhancement seen between L = 3 and L = 4 with a typical duration of less than one day. Plausible explanations for this second response are briefly discussed, but neither empirical nor theoretical evidence can establish conclusively a definite physical cause. Finally, the response profiles show significant solar cycle and seasonal dependencies, indicating that better model output might be achieved with: (1) additional simultaneous solar wind inputs; (2) more sophisticated dynamical model structures capable of incorporating non-linear feedback; and/or (3) time-adaptive linear filters that can track non-stationary dynamics in time.     

Mars Science Laboratory Mission and Science Investigation

Scheduled to land in August of 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mission was initiated to explore the habitability of Mars. This includes both modern environments as well as ancient environments recorded by the stratigraphic rock record preserved at the Gale crater landing site. The Curiosity rover has a designed lifetime of at least one Mars year (～23?months), and drive capability of at least 20?km. Curiosity’s science payload was specifically assembled to assess habitability and includes a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer and gas analyzer that will search for organic carbon in rocks, regolith fines, and the atmosphere (SAM instrument); an x-ray diffractometer that will determine mineralogical diversity (CheMin instrument); focusable cameras that can image landscapes and rock/regolith textures in natural color (MAHLI, MARDI, and Mastcam instruments); an alpha-particle x-ray spectrometer for in situ determination of rock and soil chemistry (APXS instrument); a?laser-induced breakdown spectrometer to remotely sense the chemical composition of rocks and minerals (ChemCam instrument); an active neutron spectrometer designed to search for water in rocks/regolith (DAN instrument); a weather station to measure modern-day environmental variables (REMS instrument); and a sensor designed for continuous monitoring of background solar and cosmic radiation (RAD instrument). The various payload elements will work together to detect and study potential sampling targets with remote and in situ measurements; to acquire samples of rock, soil, and atmosphere and analyze them in onboard analytical instruments; and to observe the environment around the rover. The 155-km diameter Gale crater was chosen as Curiosity’s field site based on several attributes: an interior mountain of ancient flat-lying strata extending almost 5?km above the elevation of the landing site; the lower few hundred meters of the mountain show a progression with relative age from clay-bearing to sulfate-bearing strata, separated by an unconformity from overlying likely anhydrous strata; the landing ellipse is characterized by a mixture of alluvial fan and high thermal inertia/high albedo stratified deposits; and a number of stratigraphically/geomorphically distinct fluvial features. Samples of the crater wall and rim rock, and more recent to currently active surface materials also may be studied. Gale has a well-defined regional context and strong evidence for a progression through multiple potentially habitable environments. These environments are represented by a stratigraphic record of extraordinary extent, and insure preservation of a rich record of the environmental history of early Mars. The interior mountain of Gale Crater has been informally designated at Mount Sharp, in honor of the pioneering planetary scientist Robert Sharp. The major subsystems of the MSL Project consist of a single rover (with science payload), a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, an Earth-Mars cruise stage, an entry, descent, and landing system, a launch vehicle, and the mission operations and ground data systems. The primary communication path for downlink is relay through the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The primary path for uplink to the rover is Direct-from-Earth. The secondary paths for downlink are Direct-to-Earth and relay through the Mars Odyssey orbiter. Curiosity is a scaled version of the 6-wheel drive, 4-wheel steering, rocker bogie system from the Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) Spirit and Opportunity and the Mars Pathfinder Sojourner. Like Spirit and Opportunity, Curiosity offers three primary modes of navigation: blind-drive, visual odometry, and visual odometry with hazard avoidance. Creation of terrain maps based on HiRISE (High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) and other remote sensing data were used to conduct simulated driving with Curiosity in these various modes, and allowed selection of the Gale crater landing site which requires climbing the base of a mountain to achieve its primary science goals. The Sample Acquisition, Processing, and Handling (SA/SPaH) subsystem is responsible for the acquisition of rock and soil samples from the Martian surface and the processing of these samples into fine particles that are then distributed to the analytical science instruments. The SA/SPaH subsystem is also responsible for the placement of the two contact instruments (APXS, MAHLI) on rock and soil targets. SA/SPaH consists of a robotic arm and turret-mounted devices on the end of the arm, which include a drill, brush, soil scoop, sample processing device, and the mechanical and electrical interfaces to the two contact science instruments. SA/SPaH also includes drill bit boxes, the organic check material, and an observation tray, which are all mounted on the front of the rover, and inlet cover mechanisms that are placed over the SAM and CheMin solid sample inlet tubes on the rover top deck.     

A Multistage Processing Algorithm for Disturbance Removal and Target Detection in Passive Bistatic Radar

The paper examines the problem of cancellation of direct signal, multipath and clutter echoes in passive bistatic radar (PBR). This problem is exacerbated as the transmitted waveform is not under control of the radar designer and the sidelobes of the ambiguity function can mask targets including those displaced in either (or both) range and Doppler from the disturbance. A novel multistage approach is developed for disturbance cancellation and target detection based on projections of the received signal in a subspace orthogonal to both the disturbance and previously detected targets. The resulting algorithm is shown to be effective against typical simulated scenarios with a limited number of stages, and a version with computational savings is also introduced. Finally its effectiveness is demonstrated with the application to real data acquired with an experimental VHF PBR system.     

Hard X-ray observations of Cygnus X-1 with the MISO telescope

The black hole candidate Cygnus X-1 was observed in the hard X ray - soft γ ray energy range by the MISO telescope on two different occasions: in September 1979 and May 1980. We have measured two hard X-ray states of the source: in 1979 the observed spectrum confirms the superlow state measured in the same period by the HEAO-3 satellite, while in 1980 the MISO X-ray data are consistent with the so called low state of Cygnus X-1. In both occasions, no γ -ray excess has been observed above 200 KeV.     

Venus, Mars, and the ices on Mercury and the moon: astrobiological implications and proposed mission designs

Venus and Mars likely had liquid water bodies on their surface early in the Solar System history. The surfaces of Venus and Mars are presently not a suitable habitat for life, but reservoirs of liquid water remain in the atmosphere of Venus and the subsurface of Mars, and with it also the possibility of microbial life. Microbial organisms may have adapted to live in these ecological niches by the evolutionary force of directional selection. Missions to our neighboring planets should therefore be planned to explore these potentially life-containing refuges and return samples for analysis. Sample return missions should also include ice samples from Mercury and the Moon, which may contain information about the biogenic material that catalyzed the early evolution of life on Earth (or elsewhere). To obtain such information, science-driven exploration is necessary through varying degrees of mission operation autonomy. A hierarchical mission design is envisioned that includes spaceborne (orbital), atmosphere (airborne), surface (mobile such as rover and stationary such as lander or sensor), and subsurface (e.g., ground-penetrating radar, drilling, etc.) agents working in concert to allow for sufficient mission safety and redundancy, to perform extensive and challenging reconnaissance, and to lead to a thorough search for evidence of life and habitability.     

Current US remote sensing policies: opportunities and challenges

This article examines recent progress in US land remote sensing policies by reviewing the evolution of policy on commercial imaging satellites from 1992 to the present and charting developments in the Landsat programme. Key features of the new (2003) commercial remote sensing policy are described, which go far in addressing the ambiguities of the earlier (PDD-23) framework that, in practice, hampered development of a commercial industry. In the case of Landsat, problems, particularly those of assured data provision, remain. The key to solving them lies in integrating civil, military and commercial elements more coherently, rather than considering them in isolation.     

A high-resolution Ge spectrometer for Gamma-Ray burst astronomy

The Transient Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (TGRS) to be flown aboard the WIND spacecraft is primarily designed to perform high resolution spectroscopy of transient -ray events, such as cosmic -ray bursts and solar flares over the energy range 25 keV to 8.2 MeV with an expected spectroscopic resolution of 3 keV at 1 MeV. The detector itself consists of a 215 cm³ high purityn-type Ge crystal kept at cryogenic temperatures by a passive radiative cooler. The geometric field of view defined by the cooler is 1.8 steradian. To avoid continuous triggers by soft solar events, a thin BeCu Sun-shield around the sides of the cooler has been provided. A passive Mo/Pb occulter, which modulates signals from within ±5° of the ecliptic plane at the spacecraft spin frequency, is used to identify and study solar flares, as well as emission from the galactic plane and center. Thus, in addition to transient event measurements, the instrument will allow the search for possible diffuse background lines and monitor the 511 keV positron annihilation radiation from the galactic center. In order to handle the typically large burst count rates, which can be in excess of 100 kHz, burst data are stored directly in an onboard 2.75 Mbit burst memory with an absolute timing accuracy of ±1.5 ms after ground processing. The memory is capable of storing the entire spectral data set of all but the largest bursts. WIND is scheduled to be launched on a Delta II launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral on November 1, 1994. After injection into a phasing orbit, the spacecraft will execute a double lunar swing-by before being moved into a controlled halo orbit about theL1 Lagrangian point (250R _e towards the Sun). This will provide a 5 light-second light travel time with which to triangulate gamma-ray burst sources with Earth-orbiting systems, such as those on-board the Gamma-Ray Observatory (GRO). The response of instrument to transient -ray events such as GRB's and solar flares will be presented as well as the expected response to steady state point sources and galactic center line emission.     

RAPID – The Imaging Energetic Particle Spectrometer on Cluster

The RAPID spectrometer (Research with Adaptive Particle Imaging Detectors) for the Cluster mission is an advanced particle detector for the analysis of suprathermal plasma distributions in the energy range from 20–400 keV for electrons, 40 keV–1500 keV (4000 keV) for hydrogen, and 10 keV nucl^-1–1500 keV (4000 keV) for heavier ions. Novel detector concepts in combination with pin-hole acceptance allow the measurement of angular distributions over a range of 180° in polar angle for either species. Identification of the ionic component (particle mass A) is based on a two-dimensional analysis of the particle's velocity and energy. Electrons are identified by the well-known energy-range relationship. Details of the detection techniques and in-orbit operations are described. Scientific objectives of this investigation are highlighted by the discussion of selected critical issues in geospace.