A lunar cargo mission design strategy using variable low thrust

A design technique for a near optimal, Earth–Moon transfer trajectory using continuous variable low thrust is proposed. For the Earth–Moon transfer trajectory, analytical and numerical methods are combined to formulate the trajectory optimization problem. The basic concept of the proposed technique is to utilize analytically optimized solutions when the spacecraft is flying near a central body where the transfer trajectories are nearly circular shaped, and to use a numerical optimization method to match the spacecraft’s states to establish a final near optimal trajectory. The plasma thruster is considered as the main propulsion system which is currently being developed for crewed/cargo missions for interplanetary flight. The gravitational effects of the 3rd body and geopotential effects are included during the trajectory optimization process. With the proposed design technique, Earth–Moon transfer trajectory is successfully designed with the plasma thruster having a thrust direction sequence of “fixed-varied-fixed” and a thrust acceleration sequence of “constant-variable-constant”. As this strategy has the characteristics of a lesser computational load, little sensitivity to initial conditions, and obtaining solutions quickly, this method can be utilized in the initial scoping studies for mission design and analysis. Additionally, derived near optimal trajectory solution can be used as for initial trajectory solution for further detailed optimization problem. The demonstrated results will give various insights into future lunar cargo trajectories using plasma thrusters with continuous variable low thrust, establishing approximate costs as well as trajectory characteristics.     

Bayesian linking of geosynchronous orbital debris tracks as seen by the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope

We describe a Bayesian sampling model for linking and constraining orbit models from angular observations of “streaks” in optical telescope images. Our algorithm is particularly suited to situations where the observation times are small fractions of the orbital periods of the observed objects or when there is significant confusion of objects in the observation field. We use Markov Chain Monte Carlo to sample from the joint posterior distribution of the parameters of multiple orbit models (up to the number of observed tracks) and parameters describing which tracks are linked with which orbit models. Using this algorithm, we forecast the constraints on geosynchronous (GEO) debris orbits achievable with the planned Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST). Because of the short 15 s exposure times, preliminary orbit determinations of GEO objects from LSST will have large and degenerate errors on the orbital elements. Combined with the expected crowded fields of GEO debris it will be challenging to reliably link orbital tracks in LSST observations given the currently planned observing cadence.     

Distinguishing features of CCD astrometry of faint GEO objects

The problem of initial reduction of CCD observations of faint GEO objects is studied. Several difficulties and questions arising in connection with image processing for this kind of observations are mentioned. A natural way to apply the PSF fitting technique to line-shaped trails of stars or GEO objects is described and illustrated by its implementation in the Apex II astronomical image processing package. Logical filtering technique to improve the automatic object detection is proposed. These rather convenient and versatile methods can increase astrometric and, to a lesser degree, photometric accuracy of faint GEO object observations.     

DebrisWatch I: A survey of faint geosynchronous debris

Recent anomalies exhibited by satellites and rocket bodies have highlighted that a population of faint debris exists at geosynchronous (GEO) altitudes, where there are no natural removal mechanisms. Despite previous optical surveys probing to around 10–20 cm in size, regular monitoring of faint sources at GEO is challenging, thus our knowledge remains sparse. It is essential that we continue to explore the faint debris population using large telescopes to better understand the risk posed to active GEO satellites. To this end, we present photometric results from a survey of the GEO region carried out with the 2.54 m Isaac Newton Telescope in La Palma, Canary Islands. We probe to 21st visual magnitude (around 10 cm, assuming Lambertian spheres with an albedo of 0.1), uncovering 129 orbital tracks with GEO-like motion across the eight nights of dark-grey time comprising the survey. The faint end of our brightness distribution continues to rise until the sensitivity limit of the sensor is reached, suggesting that the modal brightness could be even fainter. We uncover a number of faint, uncatalogued objects that show photometric signatures of rapid tumbling, many of which straddle the limiting magnitude of our survey over the course of a single exposure, posing a complex issue when estimating object size. This work presents the first instalment of DebrisWatch, an ongoing collaboration between the University of Warwick and the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (UK) investigating the faint population of GEO debris.     

Feasibility of performing space surveillance tasks with a proposed space-based optical architecture

Under ESA contract an industrial consortium including Aboa Space Research Oy (ASRO), the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern (AIUB), and the Dutch National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR), proposed the observation concept, developed a suitable sensor architecture, and assessed the performance of a space-based optical (SBO) telescope in 2005. The goal of the SBO study was to analyse how the existing knowledge gap in the space debris population in the millimetre and centimetre regime may be closed by means of a passive optical instrument. The SBO instrument was requested to provide statistical information on the space debris population in terms of number of objects and size distribution. The SBO instrument was considered to be a cost-efficient with 20 cm aperture and 6° field-of-view and having flexible integration requirements. It should be possible to integrate the SBO instrument easily as a secondary payload on satellites launched into low-Earth orbits (LEO), or into geostationary orbit (GEO). Thus the selected mission concept only allowed for fix-mounted telescopes, and the pointing direction could be requested freely. Since 2007 ESA focuses space surveillance and tracking activities in the Space Situational Awareness (SSA) preparatory program. Ground-based radars and optical telescopes are studied for the build-up and maintenance of a catalogue of objects. In this paper we analyse how the proposed SBO architecture could contribute to the space surveillance tasks survey and tracking. We assume that the SBO instrumentation is placed into a circular sun-synchronous orbit at 800 km altitude. We discuss the observation conditions of objects at higher altitude, and select an orbit close to the terminator plane. A pointing of the sensor orthogonal to the orbital plane with optimal elevation slightly in positive direction (0° and +5°) is found optimal for accessing the entire GEO regime within one day, implying a very good coverage of controlled objects in GEO, too. Simulations using ESA’s Program for Radar and Optical Observation Forecasting (PROOF) in the version 2005 and a GEO reference population extracted from DISCOS revealed that the proposed pointing scenario provides low phase angles together with low angular velocities of the objects crossing the field-of-view. Radiometric simulations show that the optimal exposure time is 1–2 s, and that spherical objects in GEO with a diameter of below 1 m can be detected. The GEO population can be covered under proper illumination nearly completely, but seasonal drops of the coverage are possible. Subsequent observations of objects are on average at least every 1.5 days, not exceeding 3 days at maximum. A single observation arc spans 3° to 5° on average. Using a simulation environment that connects PROOF to AIUB’s program system CelMech we verify the consistency of the initial orbit determination for five selected test objects on subsequent days as a function of realistic astrometric noise levels. The initial orbit determination is possible. We define requirements for a correlator process essential for catalogue build-up and maintenance. Each single observation should provide an astrometric accuracy of at least 1”–1.5” so that the initially determined orbits are consistent within a few hundred kilometres for the semi-major axis, 0.01 for the eccentricity, and 0.1° for the inclination.     

Evolution of the orbital elements for objects with high area-to-mass ratios in geostationary transfer orbits

A new population of uncatalogued objects in geosynchronous Earth orbits (GEO), with a mean motion of about 1 rev/day and eccentricities up to 0.6, has been identified recently. The first observations of this new type of objects were acquired in the framework of the European Space Agency’s (ESA) search for space debris in GEO and the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) using the ESA 1-m telescope on Tenerife. Earlier studies have postulated that the perturbations due to the solar radiation pressure can lead to such large eccentricities for GEO objects with a high area-to-mass ratio (A/M). The simulations showed that the eccentricities of GEO objects with large A/M exhibit periodic variations with periods of about one year and amplitudes depending on the value of A/M. The findings of these studies could be confirmed by observations from the ESA 1-m telescope on Tenerife.     

Strategy to search fragments from breakups in GEO

This paper proposes a strategy to search fragments from breakups in the Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) region based upon population prediction and motion prediction by means of ground-based optical observations. Breakup fragments have uncertainties in the states such as their position and motion, or even in their existence. Population prediction and motion prediction resolve those uncertainties. Population prediction evaluates the time-averaged distribution of fragments, whose position at a given time is unknown, in the celestial sphere. Motion prediction evaluates the expected motion of fragments appeared in image series acquired by a telescope’s CCD camera. This paper logically describes procedures of the search strategy, and provides mathematical expressions of population prediction and motion prediction. This paper also validates the search strategy via actual observations, in which a confirmed breakup in the GEO region is selected as a target. It is concluded that the proposed strategy is valid even for searching uncataloged fragments from breakups in the GEO region.     

Analysis of data of “Clementine” and “KAGUYA” missions and “ULCN” and “KSC-1162” catalogues

In this paper an analysis of data coordinate systems from selenographic catalogues and space missions was carried out. The lunar macrorelief models were made on basis of the software package ASNI USTU using method of the spherical harmonic expansion. These models accurately describe the global features of the lunar figure. To construct these models the following sources of topographic information were used: “Clementine” and “KАGUYА” (Selena, Japan mission) missions, “KSC-1162” (Kazan selenocentric catalogue), “Kiev” (selenodesic catalogue), “SAI” (Chuikova (1975)), “Bills, Ferrari”, “ULCN” (The Unified Lunar Control Network 2005). Direct comparison hypsometric information “KSС-1162” catalogue data with “Clementine” mission was carried out. These researches confirmed a good agreement of the hypsometric information of compared systems. The normalized coefficients were obtained on basis of the hypsometric information expansion for eight sources. The displacement of the lunar center of mass (LCM) relatively to the lunar center of figure (LCF) was obtained by using topographic data selenodetical catalogues and space missions.     

The ionosphere and the Latin America VLF Network Mexico (LAVNet-Mex) station

In order to detect and study the ionospheric response to solar flares (transient high energy solar radiation), we have constructed a radio receiver station at Mexico City, which is part of the “Latin American Very low frequency Network” (LAVNet-Mex). This station extends to the northern hemisphere the so called “South American VLF Network”.     

一种高效的油液磨粒图像自适应分割方法

为了提高油液磨粒图像的分割效果,优化磨粒自动识别工作的重要环节,提出了一种结合分水岭算法及区域相似度合并的油液磨粒图像自适应分割方法。对于待分割图像,首先通过形态学重构和基于形态学的自适应H-minima技术对梯度图像进行修正,利用分水岭算法完成磨粒图像的一次分割;其次提取分水岭分割后同质区域的Lab颜色特征、局部二值模式（LBP）纹理特征作为区域的量化指标,基于Bhattacharyya系数分别计算区域间的颜色、纹理相似度,设计可以实现权重自适应调整的颜色、纹理特征融合规则,以此来获取同质区域的综合相似度矩阵,实现过分割区域的合并;最后基于统一的后处理算法完成磨粒图像的完整分割。选择60幅磨粒图像对所提方法的分割效果进行测试,结果表明,单幅图像的平均分割速度在12 s左右,分割正确率稳定在90%以上,所提方法避免了用户在分割过程中对图像的交互式处理,较好地平衡了分割效率和分割精度,自适应程度明显提高。      

The lunar dust pendulum

An analytic model for the motion of a positively charged lunar dust grain in the presence of a shadowed crater at a negative potential in vacuum is presented. It is shown that the dust grain executes oscillatory trajectories, and an expression is derived for the period of oscillation. Simulations used to verify the analytic expression also show that because the trajectories are unstable, dust grains are either ejected from the crater’s vicinity or deposited into the crater forming “dust ponds.” The model also applies to other airless bodies in the solar system, such as asteroids, and predicts that under certain conditions, particularly near lunar sunset, oscillating dust “canopies” or “swarms” will form over negatively charged craters.     

GEO螺旋巡游轨道的相对运动分析和螺旋环设计

摘要： GEO螺旋巡游轨道采用螺旋巡游方式，以不同的构型“上下浮动”在GEO轨道附近，可实现对该轨道上空间目标和空间环境的高精度探测.本文在分析GEO轨道航天器运动规律的基础上，应用小偏差理论分析螺旋巡游轨道与GEO目标之间的相对运动，给出平面螺旋环和三维螺旋环的设计方法，为GEO螺旋巡游轨道的设计奠定基础.     

The classical Laplace plane as a stable disposal orbit for geostationary satellites

The classical Laplace plane is a frozen orbit, or equilibrium solution for the averaged dynamics arising from Earth oblateness and lunisolar gravitational perturbations. The pole of the orbital plane of uncontrolled GEO satellites regress around the pole of the Laplace plane at nearly constant inclination and rate. In accordance with Friesen et al. (1993), we show how this stable plane can be used as a robust long-term disposal orbit. The current graveyard regions for end-of-life retirement of GEO payloads, which is several hundred kilometers above GEO depending on the spacecraft characteristics, cannot contain the newly discovered high area-to-mass ratio debris population. Such objects are highly susceptible to the effects of solar radiation pressure exhibiting dramatic variations in eccentricity and inclination over short periods of time. The Laplace plane graveyard, on the contrary, would trap this debris and would not allow these objects to rain down through GEO. Since placing a satellite in this inclined orbit can be expensive, we discuss some alternative disposal schemes that have acceptable cost-to-benefit ratios.     

基于解析小波的光流计算方法

在基于小波变换的光流计算中,实值小波系数的相位振荡和多分辨率计算的累计误差是影响光流计算精度的两个主要原因.通过引入解析小波以降低相位振荡的影响,同时结合M估计子能够有效抑制参数估计产生的大误差项,提出一种多尺度多分辨率的光流计算方法.实验表明,与现有的基于小波变换的光流计算方法相比,提出的方法不论在光流计算的精度还是可计算范围上都有很大程度的提高.      

A deformation model of flexible,HAMR objects for accurate propagation under perturbations and the self-shadowing effects

A new type of space debris in near geosynchronous orbit (GEO) was recently discovered and later identified as exhibiting unique characteristics associated with high area-to-mass ratio (HAMR) objects, such as high rotation rates and high reflection properties. Observations have shown that this debris type is very sensitive to environmental disturbances, particularly solar radiation pressure, due to the fact that its motion depends on the actual effective area, orientation of that effective area, reflection properties and the area-to-mass ratio of the object is not stable over time. Previous investigations have modelled this type of debris as rigid bodies (constant area-to-mass ratios) or discrete deformed body; however, these simplifications will lead to inaccurate long term orbital predictions. This paper proposes a simple yet reliable model of a thin, deformable membrane based on multibody dynamics. The membrane is modelled as a series of flat plates, connected through joints, representing the flexibility of the membrane itself. The mass of the membrane, albeit low, is taken into account through lump masses at the joints. The attitude and orbital motion of this flexible membrane model is then propagated near GEO to predict its orbital evolution under the perturbations of solar radiation pressure, Earth’s gravity field (J₂), third body gravitational fields (the Sun and Moon) and self-shadowing. These results are then compared to those obtained for two rigid body models (cannonball and flat rigid plate). In addition, Monte Carlo simulations of the flexible model by varying initial attitude and deformation angle (different shape) are investigated and compared with the two rigid models (cannonball and flat rigid plate) over a period of 100?days. The numerical results demonstrate that cannonball and rigid flat plate are not appropriate to capture the true dynamical evolution of these objects, at the cost of increased computational time.     

Topology of the high latitude magnetosphere during large magnetic storms and the main mechanisms of relativistic electron acceleration

One of the main endeavors of the “Space Weather” program is the prediction of the appearance of very large fluxes of relativistic electrons with energies larger than 1 MeV, because they represent a serious potential hazard for satellite missions. Large fluxes of relativistic electrons are formed in the outer radiation belt during the recovery phase of some storms. The formation of large fluxes is connected to a balance between the acceleration and loss processes. A two-step acceleration process is ordinarily analyzed. A “Seed” population with energies ∼hundreds of keV appeared during expansion phase of magnetospheric substorm. A “Seed” population is additionally accelerated obtaining relativistic energies by some other process. Several acceleration mechanisms have been proposed for the explanation of the electron acceleration, including radial diffusion and internal acceleration by wave-particle interactions. Nevertheless, none of them takes into account great changes of magnetospheric topology during a magnetic storm. Such changes are mainly connected with asymmetric and symmetric ring current development. We analyze the changes of magnetospheric topology during magnetic storms. We show that a change of the magnetospheric magnetic field can be the important factor determining the acceleration of relativistic electrons.     

Are small-scale field-aligned currents and magnetosheath-like particle precipitation signatures of the same low-altitude cusp?

We examined some 75 observations from the low-altitude Earth orbiting DMSP, Ørsted and CHAMP satellites which were taken in the region of the nominal cusp. Our objective was to determine whether the actually observed cusp locations as inferred from magnetosheath-like particle precipitation (“particle cusp”) and intense small-scale magnetic field variations (“current cusp”), respectively, were identical and were consistent with the statistically expected latitude of the cusp derived from a huge number of charged particle spectrograms (“statistical cusp”).     

Selection of candidate salad vegetables for controlled ecological life support system

Higher plants, as one of the essential biological components of CELSS, can supply food, oxygen and water for human crews during future long-duration space missions and Lunar/Mars habitats. In order to select suitable leaf vegetable varieties for our CELSS Experimental Facility (CEF), five varieties of lettuce (“Nenlvnaiyou”, “Dasusheng”, “Naichoutai”, “Dongfangkaixuan” and “Siji”), two of spinach (“Daye” and “Quanneng”), one of rape (“Jingyou No. 1”) and one of common sowthistle were grown and compared on the basis of edible biomass, and nutrient content. In addition, two series of experiments were conducted to study single leaf photosynthetic rates and transpiration rates at 30 days after planting, one which used various concentrations of CO₂ (500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 μmol mol⁻¹) and another which used various light intensities (100, 300, 500 and 700 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). Results showed that lettuce cvs. “Nenlvnaiyou”, “Siji” and “Dasusheng” produced higher yields of edible biomass; common sowthisle would be a good source of β-carotene for the diet. Based on the collective findings, we selected three varieties of lettuce (“Nenlvnaiyou”, “Dasusheng” and “Siji”) and one of common sowthistle as the candidate crops for further research in our CEF. In addition, elevated CO₂ concentration increased the rates of photosynthesis and transpiration, and elevated light intensity increased the rate of photosynthesis for these varieties. These results can be useful for determining optimal conditions for controlling CO₂ and water fluxes between the crops and the overall CELSS.     

复杂交通场景中多运动目标分割算法

针对室外复杂交通场景中多运动目标分割问题,提出了一种由变化检测和运动分割组成的算法,利用水平集算法对帧差图像进行变化检测得到运动窗口,在运动窗口范围内进行改进的k-均值聚类分割,利用运动相似性进行分割区域融合.算法避免了整个图像的分割,减少了运算量,完整的分割出运动目标.试验结果表明,算法不仅能从复杂交通场景图像序列中有效的检测和提取出运动目标并有很强的鲁棒性,而且能够解决运动目标的遮挡问题.