日本将实施4星气候监测计划

日本宇宙开发事业团（ＮＡＳＤＡ）预计将在２０００年４月开始实施一项包括４颗卫星的全球气候监视计划。ＮＡＳＤＡ目前已申请了大约１．２亿日元（合１００万美元），用于对２颗拟于２００５年发射的全球变化观测卫星（ＧＣＯＭ——ＧｌｏｂａｌＣｈａｎｇｅＯｂｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎＭｉｓｓｉｏｎ）进行研究。这笔研究经费尚待日本空间活动委员会的批准。第一颗卫星称为ＧＣＯＭ－Ａ１，其重点任务是大气监测。第二颗卫星是ＧＣＯＭ－Ｂ１，将携带５种遥感器，其重点任务是地球观测。它们的２颗后继星ＧＣＯＭ－Ａ２、Ｂ２，将于２０１０…     

日改进H—2火箭以期进入国际发射市场

日本宇宙事业开发团（ＮＡＳＤＡ）已开始全面研制３种改进型Ｈ－２运载火箭，这３种火箭依次称为Ｈ－２Ａ、Ｈ－２Ｂ和Ｈ－２Ｃ。其中，Ｈ－２Ａ与Ｈ－２的运载能力相当，它是与阿里安－４同级的运载火箭；Ｈ－２Ｂ和Ｈ－２Ｃ将使用与ＬＥ－７发动机相似的发动机作为捆绑...     

美国“地球观测系统”卫星参数表

美国“地球观测系统”卫星参数见表１。表１　“地球观测系统”参数表卫星ＥＯＳ－ＡＭＥＯＳ－ＰＭＥＯＳ－ＣＯＬＯＲＥＯＳ－ＡＥＲＯＥＯＳ－ＡＬＴＥＯＳ－ＣＨＥＭ科学用途测量地表、云、气溶胶和辐射收支特性测量云、降水和辐射收支、地面雪和海冰、海面温度和海洋生产率研究海洋生物量和生产率观测大气和气溶胶测量海平面高度、洋流和冰层质量测量大气化学成分及其传输过程、海洋现象有效载荷ＡＳＴＥＲ，ＣＥＲＥＳ，ＭＯＤＩＳ，ＭＩＳＲ，ＭＯＰＩＴＴＡＩＲＳ／ＡＭＳＵ／ＭＨＳ，ＭＯＤＩＳ，ＣＥＲＥＳ，ＭＩＭＲＳｅａＷＩＦ…     

夏季极区中层大气运动功率谱分析

本文分析了１９８７年６月２３日至２９日ＭＡＣ／ＳＩＮＥ国际联合观测期间ＳＯＵＳＹＶＨＦ雷达在Ａｎｄφｙａ探测中层大气风场起伏的功率谱．结果显示，垂直速度谱与重力波谱理论有较大差异．引入背景风场Ｄｏｐｐｌｅｒ漂移并不能完全解释垂直运动谱与重力波谱理论的偏差，背景风场的影响明显小于理论预测的结果，说明大气运动功率谱成分中除了重力波外可能还有其它因素．     

磁暴期间中纬度电离层剖面结构变化的数值模拟

利用电离层理论模型模拟了磁暴期间热层大气温度、成分、中性风和电场扰动对电离层电子密度剖面结构，特别是峰值密度和峰值高度变化的影响，结果表明，热层大气温度变化所引起光化反应系数的改变对电离层剖面结构影响不大；热层大气成分特别是Ｎ２／Ｏ的变化能有效地引起密度剖面变化，Ｎ２增加足以使峰值密度产生所观测到的负相暴；由中性风和电场引起等离子体漂移是峰值高度ｈｍＦ２变化的主要原因，但对电子密度的影响不足以抵消     

大冰期的窥视

１９９８年入冬以来天气偏暖，许多人认为是气候异常所致。中科院的研究人员指出，“暖冬”将持续下去，可能要延续３０年。他们说，和本世纪初相比，全球平均气温约提高了０．５℃。由于今后几十年内，温室气体（主要是ＣＯ２）还将增长，因此，全球升温的势头不会停下来，到２０３０年，估计我国华北地区冬季的气温将升高１．５℃，夏季将升高０．７℃左右。全世界气候变暖，气象学家们都在关注这一现象。美国俄亥俄州立大学的气象专家小组，考察了北极后发现，若温度上升２℃，将使北极冰原释放出超量的ＣＯ２，这些ＣＯ２转而再使气温升…     

1994年国外航天十大新闻

一、日本Ｈ－２大型运载火箭投入使用２月４日，日本自制的Ｈ－２大型运载火箭从种子岛航天中心成功发射，将轨道再入试验装置（ＯＲＥＸ）和火箭飞行状态鉴定有效载荷（ＶＥＰ）送入地球低轨道。该火箭是由氢氧芯级和捆绑两个固体火箭助推器组成，总高约５０米，直径４米，起飞重量２５４吨，其地球同步轨道运载能力为２吨，地球低轨道运载能力为１０吨。其研制费用为２５亿美元，历时１０年。由于其第一级大氢氧发动机ＬＥ－７结构复杂，工作条件要求高，使研制进度多次受阻，研制时间比原计划推迟了两年。８月２８日Ｈ－２火箭又成功地完…     

H—2火箭的OREX有效载荷

日本Ｈ－２火箭在１９９４年２月４日的首次发射中携带了２个试验性有效载荷：火箭性能评估载荷（ＶＥＰ）和轨道再入试验载荷（ＯＲＥＸ）。ＶＥＰ用于测定Ｈ－２火箭的性能参数，为日本发射第６颗技术试验卫星（ＥＴＳ－６）作准备；ＯＲＥＸ是为日本计划在１９９９年发射的小型不载人航天飞机ＨＯＰＥ，收集再入数据和试验热防护系统。外形酷似飞碟的ＯＲＥＸ重１９００磅（约８６２千克），高１．４６米，外：径为３．４米，由ＮＡＳＤＡ和日本科学技术局国家宇航实验室共同研制。日本计划在ＯＲＥＸ的飞行过程中收集４方面的数据，即收…     

航天简讯

ＩＳＯ卫星探索宇宙奥秘１９９５年１１月１７日，阿里安－４火箭把“红外空间观测站”（ＩＳＯ）卫星送入太空。ＩＳＯ卫星是欧洲三大航天飞行任务的第一项，它主要用于考察行星和恒星的起源。另外两项任务是ＳＯＨＯ卫星和ＣＬＵＳＴＥＲ卫星群（共４颗）。ＳＯＨＯ卫星...     

新生代的气候效应与碳循环

对发生于新生代的６次巨大天体撞击作用（６５Ｍａ，３４Ｍａ，１５Ｍａ，２４Ｍａ，１．１Ｍａ，０．７Ｍａ）的气候效应进行的模拟表明，这６次巨大天体撞击作用产生的尘埃进入平流层后，可使全球平均温度下降至零度以下，降温效应持续时间最长可达３０年之久，首次在模拟中考虑全球性森林大火产生的ＣＯ２和死亡生物分解生成的ＣＯ２的温室效应，研究表明这两种作用使大气中ＣＯ２增量最大仅达６７％，其增温效应远远低于尘埃层产     

Cloud optical thickness feedbacks in the CO2 climate problem

A radiative-convective equilibrium model is developed and applied to study cloud optical thickness feedbacks in the CO₂ climate problem. The basic hypothesis is that in the warmer and moister CO₂-rich atmosphere, cloud liquid water content will generally be larger than at present, so that cloud optical thickness will be larger too. For clouds other than thin cirrus, the result is to increase the albedo more than to increase the greenhouse effect. Thus the sign of the feedback is negative: cloud optical properties alter in such a way as to reduce the surface and tropospheric warming caused by the addition of CO₂. This negative feedback can be substantial. When observational estimates of the temperature dependence of cloud liquid water content are employed in the model, the surface temperature change due to doubling CO₂ is reduced by about one half.     

Performance and early results from the stratospheric and mesospheric sounder (SAMS) on Nimbus 7

The design and performance of SAMS, an infrared limb-scanning instrument for sounding the temperature and composition of the atmosphere from 15 to 150 km altitude, are reviewed. Some examples of preliminary results on temperature and water vapour and nitrous oxide abundance versus latitude and height are presented.     

High vertical resolution water vapour profiles in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere retrieved from MAESTRO solar occultation spectra

An algorithm has been developed that retrieves water vapour profiles in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere from optical depth spectra obtained by the Measurements of Aerosol Extinction in the Stratosphere and Troposphere Retrieved by Occultation (MAESTRO) instrument onboard the SCISAT satellite as part of the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE) mission. The retrieval relies on ro-vibrational absorption of solar radiation by water vapour in the 926–970 nm range. During the iterative inversion process, the optical depth spectra are simulated at the spectral resolution and sampling frequency of MAESTRO using the correlated-k approximation. The Chahine inversion updates the water vapour volume mixing ratio (VMR), adjusting all retrieval layers simultaneously, to match the observed differential optical depth due to absorption by water vapour and ozone at each tangent height. This approach accounts for significant line saturation effects. Profiles are typically obtained from ∼22 km down to the cloud tops or to 5 km, with relative precision as small as 3% in the troposphere. In the lower stratosphere, the precision on water vapour VMR is ∼1.3 μmol/mol in an individual retrieval layer (∼1 km thick). The spectral capability of MAESTRO allows for the clear separation of extinction due to water vapour and aerosol, and for the fitting quality to be quantified and used to determine an altitude-dependent convergence criterion for the retrieval. In the middle troposphere, interhemispheric differences in water vapour VMR are driven by oceanic evaporation whereas in the upper troposphere, deep convection dominates and a strong seasonal cycle is observed at high latitudes.     

Measurements of the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere during tropical cyclones using the GPS radio occultation technique

Water vapour transport to the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere by deep convective storms affects the radiation balance of the atmosphere and has been proposed as an important component of climate change. The aim of the work presented here is to understand if the GPS radio occultation technique is useful for characterization of this process. Our assessment addresses the question if severe storms leave a significant signature in radio occultation profiles in the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere. Radio occultation data from the Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate (COSMIC) were analyzed, focusing on two particular tropical cyclones with completely different characteristics, the hurricane Bertha, which formed in the Atlantic Basin during July 2008 and reached a maximum intensity of Category 3, and the typhoon Hondo, which formed in the south Indian Ocean during 2008 reaching a maximum intensity of Category 4. The result is positive, suggesting that the bending angle of a GPS radio occultation signal contains interesting information on the atmosphere around the tropopause, but not any information regarding the water vapour. The maximum percentage anomaly of bending angle between 14 and 18 km of altitude during tropical cyclones is typically larger than the annual mean by 5–15% and it can reach 20% for extreme cases. The results are discussed in connection to the GPS radio occultation receiver which will be part of the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES) payload on the International Space Station.     

Response of dissolved oxygen and related marine ecological parameters to a tropical cyclone in the South China Sea

It is well known that tropical cyclones can cause upwelling, decrease of sea surface temperature, increase of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration and enhancement of primary production. But little is known about the response of dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration to a typhoon in the open ocean. This paper investigates the impact of a typhoon on DO concentration and related ecological parameters using in situ and remote sensing data. The in situ data were collected 1 week after the passage of the super-typhoon Nanmadol in the northern South China Sea in 2011. An increase in DO concentration, accompanied by a decrease in water temperature and an increase in salinity and Chl-a concentration, was measured at sampling stations close to the typhoon track. At these stations, maximum DO concentration was found at a depth of around 5 m and maximum Chl-a concentration at depths between 50 and 75 m. The layer of high DO concentration extends from the surface to a depth of 35 m and the concentrations stay almost constant down to this depth. Due to the passage of the typhoon, also a large sea level anomaly (21.6 cm) and a high value of Ekman pumping velocity (4.0 × 10⁻⁴ m s⁻¹) are observed, indicating upwelling phenomenon. At the same time, also intrusion of Kuroshio waters in the form of a loop current into the South China Sea (SCS) was observed. We attribute the increase of DO concentration after the passage of the typhoon to three effects: (1) entrainment of oxygen from the air into the upper water layer and strong vertical mixing of the water body due to the typhoon winds, (2) upwelling of cold nutrient-rich water which stimulates photosynthesis of phytoplankton and thus the generation of oxygen, which also increases the DO concentration due to cold water since the solubility of oxygen increase with decreasing water temperature, and, possibly, (3) transport of DO enriched waters from the Western Pacific to the SCS via the intrusion of Kuroshio waters.     

The low temperature organic chemistry of Titan's geofluid.

Organic chemistry on Titan and prebiotic chemistry on Earth involve the same N-containing organics: nitriles and their oligomers. Couplings of their chemistry in the three parts of Titan's geofluid (atmosphere, aerosols and surface) seem to play a key role in the organic chemical evolution of the planet. If liquid water was present on Titan, then a prebiotic chemistry, involving eutectics, similar to that of the early Earth, may have occurred. However, liquid water is currently absent and a prebiotic chemistry based only on N-organics may be evolving now on Titan. The other consequence of the low temperatures of Titan is the possible formation of organics unstable at room temperature and very reactive. So far, these compounds have not been systematically searched for in experimental studies of Titan's organic chemistry. C4N2 has already been detected on Titan. Powerful reactants in organic chemistry, CH2N2, and CH3N3, may be also present. They exhibit spectral signatures in the mid-IR strong enough to allow their detection at the 10-100 ppb level. They may be detectable on future IR spectra (ISO and Cassini) of Titan.     

History of water on Mars: a biological perspective.

We divide the history of water on the Martian surface into four epochs based upon the atmospheric temperature and pressure. In Epoch 1, during which a primordial CO2 atmosphere was actively maintained by impact and volcanic recycling, we presume the mean annual temperature to have been above freezing, the pressure to have exceeded one atmosphere, and liquid water to have been widespread. Under such conditions, similar to early Earth, life could have arisen and become abundant. After this initial period of recycling, atmospheric CO2 was irreversibly lost due to carbonate formation and the pressure and temperature declined. In Epoch II, the mean annual temperature fell below freezing but peak temperatures would have exceeded freezing. Ice covered lakes, similar to those in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica could have provided a habitat for life. In Epoch III, the mean and peak temperatures were below freezing and there would have been only transient liquid water. Microbial ecosystems living in endolithic rock "greenhouses" could have continued to survive. Finally, in Epoch IV, the pressure dropped to near the triple point pressure of water and liquid water could no longer have existed on the surface and life on the surface would have become extinct.     

Specific effects of irradiance and CO2 concentration doublings on productivity and mineral content in lettuce.

Experiments in growth chambers with controlled atmosphere were performed to compare the effects on the productivity of two treatments stimulating photosynthesis: the doubling of CO2 concentration, the doubling of irradiance; the combining of both was also tested. A large effect of light was noticed: (i) the accumulation of carbon was, contrarily to CO2 effect, amplified within time, and led to the most important dry matter production. (ii) the specific leaf weight was about two-fold increased. (iii) the nitrate content was 2-3 fold less. A significant positive effect of CO2 was detected on the fresh biomass production and the iron content of lettuce. A synergy was observed on dry matter production by the interaction of the two factors.     

The thermosphere as a sink of magnetospheric energy: A review of recent observations of dynamics

The study of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the earth's upper atmosphere has made significant progress over the past few years owing to the availability of new global-scale data sets from the Dynamics Explorer satellites. The thermospheric wind and temperature fields at high latitude have been observed to depend strongly on forcing processes of magnetospheric origin. A key momentum source is due to the drag effect of ions convecting in response to electric fields mapped down on the ionosphere from magnetospheric boundary regions. Likewise, an important heat source derives from Joule or frictional dissipation due to ion/neutral difference velocities governed, in turn, by magnetospheric forcing. In this paper we discuss the progress made over the last 2–3 years initiated by the new satellite measurements and we review published data on ion and neutral motions in the context of the energy and momentum coupling between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere/neutral upper atmosphere. The observations indicate the existence of a “flywheel effect” which implies direct feedback from the neutral thermosphere to the magnetosphere via the release of energy and momentum previously “stored” in the neutral thermosphere.     

High temporal resolution global PWV dataset of 2005–2016 by using a neural network approach to determine the mean temperature of the atmosphere

Atmospheric water vapour plays an important role in phenomena related to the global hydrologic cycle and climate change. However, the rapid temporal–spatial variation in global tropospheric water vapour has not been well investigated due to a lack of long-term, high-temporal-resolution precipitable water vapour (PWV). Accordingly, this study generates an hourly PWV dataset for 272 ground-based International Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Service (IGS) stations over the period of 2005–2016 using the zenith troposphere delay (ZTD) derived from global-scale GNSS observation. The root mean square (RMS) of the hourly ZTD obtained from the IGS tropospheric product is approximately 4 mm. A fifth-generation reanalysis dataset of the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF ERA5) is used to obtain hourly surface temperature (T) and pressure (P), which are first validated with GNSS synoptic station data and radiosonde data, respectively. Then, T and P are used to calculate the water vapour-weighted atmospheric mean temperature (Tm) and zenith hydrostatic delay (ZHD), respectively. T and P at the GNSS stations are obtained via an interpolation in the horizontal and vertical directions using the grid-based ERA5 reanalysis dataset. Here, Tm is calculated using a neural network model, whereas ZHD is obtained using an empirical Saastamoinen model. The RMS values of T and P at the collocated 693 radiosonde stations are 1.6 K and 3.1 hPa, respectively. Therefore, the theoretical error of PWV caused by the errors in ZTD, T and P is on the order of approximately 2.1 mm. A practical comparison experiment is performed using 97 collocated radiosonde stations and 23 GNSS stations equipped with meteorological sensors. The RMS and bias of the hourly PWV dataset are 2.87/?0.16 and 2.45/0.55 mm, respectively, when compared with radiosonde and GNSS stations equipped with meteorological sensors. Additionally, preliminary analysis of the hourly PWV dataset during the EI Niño event of 2014–2016 further indicates the capability of monitoring the daily changes in atmospheric water vapour. This finding is interesting and significant for further climate research.