风力机组叶片的先进翼型族设计

大型风力机组叶片设计需要专用的翼型族,以满足风力机组运行的环境要求。高升阻比、低粗糙度影响是该翼型族的气动性能特点。为了发展我国具有自主知识产权的风力机专用翼型族,在科技部863项目的支持下,北京航空航天大学联合国内气动研究单位,通过理论分析、数值模拟和风洞试验等技术途径,开发了两个适用于大型风力机组叶片的先进翼型族。理论分析和风洞试验表明,设计结果基本达到了预先设定的气动性能指标。     

典型直升机旋翼翼型气动特性试验研究

采用高升阻比特性的翼型是提高直升机旋翼气动性能的关键。对在典型的OA309旋翼翼型基础上开发的CH309翼型,进行了低、高速气动特性风洞试验研究。试验分别在FL14风洞和NF-6风洞中进行,采用表面测压和尾耙型阻测量技术。试验结果表明：CH309翼型的总体性能优于OA309翼型。试验结果为直升机旋翼设计时翼型的选取提供了参考。     

国外直升机旋翼翼型研究综述

为提高直升机的性能,减少噪声,改善飞行品质,自20世纪70年代以来,美国、英国和法国等都根据对所设计直升机的性能和任务需求而致力于新翼型的研究,并建立了旋翼翼型设计和选择的方法,初步评估在达到和接近最大升力时,翼型几何参数对阻力发散Ma数的影响。得出直升机旋翼最后所选用翼型或翼型的组合,必须在具体性能要求的基础上得到。最后介绍了波音—伏托公司制定的发展先进的高速直升机计划中,在旋翼翼型研究方面,研制了VR系列翼型、法国ONARA和宇航技术公司联合实施了高速直升机旋翼性能优化的计划,研制了OA系列翼型的具体工作。     

旋翼翼型气动设计与评估软件HRADesign

HRADesign系统作为通用旋翼翼型气动设计和评估系统,研制目的主要是为工业设计环境提供通用、高效、鲁棒的优化设计架构,应用于各类旋翼翼型族的设计,提高旋翼翼型设计的效率和精度,以满足先进直升机对高性能旋翼翼型的迫切需求.旋翼翼型设计技术是直升机旋翼设计的核心技术,旋翼翼型的优化设计具有多点、多目标、强约束的特点.HRADesign系统针对旋翼翼型设计的特点,发展了多目标进化算法、PCA多目标降维技术、Kriging代理模型、基于CST方法的翼型参数化技术以及高精度CFD等优化设计技术,构建了基于进化算法的多目标优化流程.通过详细介绍平台的系统架构、主要的功能模块以及多目标优化流程,展现了系统架构设计的灵活性和功能模块的完备性.通过ADODG基准测试算例、某厚度旋翼翼型常规多目标优化算例和考虑多目标降维的优化算例进行了系统功能验证,优化结果表明,在满足约束的条件下,优化后的旋翼翼型和基准翼型相比,综合性能都有明显改善,验证了优化设计系统的有效性、可靠性.     

旋翼翼型动态失速机理及非定常设计研究进展

旋翼翼型的动态失速现象限制了直升机的最大飞行速度和机动性,并且其产生机理复杂、抑制困难,是直升机空气动力学领域持续关注的重点与难点问题.本文首先介绍了试验、半经验模型和计算流体力学(CFD)等旋翼翼型动态失速研究方法的发展,分析了不同方法的优缺点和适用范围.其次,梳理了旋翼翼型动态失速机理及气动外形、迎角及来流等参数影响机制的研究进展.综合对比发现,变来流-变迎角耦合状态的动态失速更符合旋翼桨叶剖面的流动特征,是未来旋翼翼型动态失速研究的重要方向之一.然后,阐述了旋翼翼型设计方法和设计理念的发展历程,分析了主流翼型定常设计与少数非定常设计理念的优缺点.分析结果表明,非定常设计可以获得既能缓解动态失速又能显著提高静态气动特性的翼型,综合考虑旋翼桨叶剖面运动与来流特征的非定常设计是当前旋翼翼型设计的一个新方向.最后,对旋翼翼型设计的未来发展方向进行了讨论,提出了旋翼翼型设计与旋翼桨叶一体化设计的多层级、多阶段发展设想.     

基于遗传算法的旋翼翼型综合气动优化设计

结合直升机飞行特性及旋翼工作气动环境,提出了适用于中型运输直升机旋翼翼型优化设计的目标函数及约束条件.在此基础上采用遗传算法,以"黑鹰"(UH-60A)直升机旋翼翼型SC1095为基础翼型,进行多目标、多状态以及多约束条件下的旋翼翼型优化设计.优化翼型同SC1095翼型相比弯度稍大,最大厚度略有增加.结果表明:优化翼型气动力特性在满足约束条件的情况下,零升力矩系数减小了57.2%,最大升力系数增加了3.7%,阻力系数减小了7.5%.同时,非定常动态失速状态下的气动特性也有一定的改善,阻力系数和力矩系数的发散范围均有明显的减小.此外,悬停状态计算结果表明:采用优化翼型构成的旋翼与SC1095旋翼相比,具有更高的悬停效率及更低的力矩系数.      

直升机旋翼翼型需求分析及技术发展展望

与机翼翼型相比,旋翼翼型在前飞时来流速度和迎角处于大范围变化之中,需要针对多种气动环境进行综合权衡设计.针对常规直升机和新构型高速直升机,综合考虑多种飞行条件,分析了旋翼翼型设计的性能需求.总结了先进旋翼翼型系列的发展及应用情况,以OA和TsAGI翼型为例分析了旋翼翼型的气动性能特点和发展趋势.从旋翼翼型指标分解、动态气动特性计算与试验、气动优化设计等方面介绍了旋翼翼型技术的发展现状,并对未来旋翼翼型技术的发展进行了展望.     

直升机旋翼翼型需求分析及技术发展展望

与机翼翼型相比,旋翼翼型在前飞时来流速度和迎角处于大范围变化之中,需要针对多种气动环境进行综合权衡设计.针对常规直升机和新构型高速直升机,综合考虑多种飞行条件,分析了旋翼翼型设计的性能需求.总结了先进旋翼翼型系列的发展及应用情况,以OA和TsAGI翼型为例分析了旋翼翼型的气动性能特点和发展趋势.从旋翼翼型指标分解、动态气动特性计算与试验、气动优化设计等方面介绍了旋翼翼型技术的发展现状,并对未来旋翼翼型技术的发展进行了展望.     

不断发展的倾转旋翼机

直升机由于具有不需机场而能垂直起降、悬停、前后侧飞等优良的飞行品质,在军事和民用中获得广泛的使用。但是由于直升机旋翼气动力的固有限制,直升机的飞行速度很难超过360km/h,这限制了直升机的发展。从20世纪40年代起,人们就在探索研究一种既具有直升机垂直起降、悬停、前后侧飞能力,又具有固定翼飞机航程远、高速度飞行性能的飞行器。曾探索过复合式直升机、前行桨叶概念、X 翼方案、旋翼折叠方案、倾转旋翼机等多种新原理     

某直升机旋翼采用4片桨叶与5片桨叶的动力学对比分析

旋翼设计包括桨毂构型、旋翼桨叶片数、旋翼直径、旋翼实度、翼型剖面等一系列影响直升机性能的因素。而旋翼桨叶片数的选择,对轻型和中型直升机来讲,4片桨叶旋翼和5片桨叶旋翼具有典型意义。某直升机是5吨级的直升机,在某直升机先期方案中,旋翼设计为4片桨叶,在某直升机旋翼的对法合作中,法方提出将4片桨叶改为5片桨叶。为此,在签订某直升机旋翼对法合作的合同之前,我们对某直升机采用4片桨叶与5片桨叶的动力学性能进行了比较和分析,并得出明确的结论。     

Triton, Pluto, Centaurs, and Trans-Neptunian Bodies

The diverse populations of icy bodies of the outer Solar System (OSS) give critical information on the composition and structure of the solar nebula and the early phases of planet formation. The two principal repositories of icy bodies are the Kuiper belt or disk, and the Oort Cloud, both of which are the source regions of the comets. Nearly 1000 individual Kuiper belt objects have been discovered; their dynamical distribution is a clue to the early outward migration and gravitational scattering power of Neptune. Pluto is perhaps the largest Kuiper belt object. Pluto is distinguished by its large satellite, a variable atmosphere, and a surface composed of several ices and probable organic solid materials that give it color. Triton is probably a former member of the Kuiper belt population, suggested by its retrograde orbit as a satellite of Neptune. Like Pluto, Triton has a variable atmosphere, compositionally diverse icy surface, and an organic atmospheric haze. Centaur objects appear to come from the Kuiper belt and occupy temporary orbits in the planetary zone; the compositional similarity of one well studied Centaur (5145 Pholus) to comets is notable. New discoveries continue apace, as observational surveys reveal new objects and refined observing techniques yield more physical information about specific bodies.     

Caution, contention, and consolidation

The Washington Watch column provides an overview of NASA's cautious approach to the launch of Space Shuttle Discovery STS-114, contention between the Air Force and administration about production of the F/A-22 Raptor aircraft, and consolidation among U.S. airline companies.     

CIR Morphology, Turbulence, Discontinuities, and Energetic Particles

Corotating interaction regions (CIRs) in the middle heliosphere have distinct morphological features and associated patterns of turbulence and energetic particles. This report summarizes current understanding of those features and patterns, discusses how they can vary from case to case and with distance from the Sun and possible causes of those variations, presents an analytical model of the morphological features found in earlier qualitative models and numerical simulations, and identifies aspects of the features and patterns that have yet to be resolved. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Water and Volatile Inventories of Mercury,Venus, the Moon,and Mars

We review the geochemical observations of water, \(\mbox{D}/\mbox{H}\) and volatile element abundances of the inner Solar System bodies, Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and Mars. We focus primarily on the inventories of water in these bodies, but also consider other volatiles when they can inform us about water. For Mercury, we have no data for internal water, but the reducing nature of the surface of Mercury would suggest that some hydrogen may be retained in its core. We evaluate the current knowledge and understanding of venusian water and volatiles and conclude that the venusian mantle was likely endowed with as much water as Earth of which it retains a small but non-negligible fraction. Estimates of the abundance of the Moon’s internal water vary from Earth-like to one to two orders of magnitude more depleted. Cl, K, and Zn isotope anomalies for lunar samples argue that the giant impact left a unique geochemical fingerprint on the Moon, but not the Earth. For Mars, an early magma ocean likely generated a thick crust; this combined with a lack of crustal recycling mechanisms would have led to early isolation of the Martian mantle from later delivery of water and volatiles from surface reservoirs or late accretion. The abundance estimates of Martian mantle water are similar to those of the terrestrial mantle, suggesting some similarities in the water and volatile inventories for the terrestrial planets and the Moon.     

Lunar Ranging, Gravitomagnetism, and APOLLO

The technique of lunar laser ranging (LLR) has for many decades contributed to cutting-edge tests of the fundamental nature of gravity. These include the best tests to date of the strong equivalence principle, the time-rate-of-change of the gravitational constant, gravitomagnetism, the inverse square law, and preferred frame effects. The phenomenologies of each are briefly discussed, followed by an extended discussion of gravitomagnetism. Finally, the new APOLLO project is summarized, which achieves range precision as low as one millimeter.     

Observability, Eigenvalues, and Kalman Filtering

In higher order Kalman filtering applications the analyst often has very little insight into the nature of the observability of the system. For example, there are situations where the filter may be estimating certain linear combinations of state variables quite well, but this is not apparent from a glance at the error covariance matrix. It is shown here that the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the error covariance matrix, when properly normalized, can provide useful information about the observability of the system.     

Decisions, endings, and new beginnings

The Washington Watch column examines NASA shuttle developments, airline pilot age issues, development of a personnel recovery vehicle, and includes an obituary for retired Air Force General Bernard Schriever, remembered as an air and space pioneer. The discussion of NASA shuttle developments reports on the space shuttle flight schedule and NASA's ability to deliver hardware to the International Space Station, funding levels and equipment development schedules related to President Bush's mandate to visit Mars, a report on the space program by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and top-level management changes at NASA. The discussion of airline pilot age issues examines efforts to change mandatory retirement requirements. The discussion of personnel recovery vehicles reports on development of an aircraft designed to rescue survivors during combat search and rescue missions.     

Cosmic Rays,Clouds, and Climate

A correlation between a global average of low cloud cover and the flux of cosmic rays incident in the atmosphere has been observed during the last solar cycle. The ionising potential of Earth bound cosmic rays are modulated by the state of the heliosphere, while clouds play an important role in the Earth's radiation budget through trapping outgoing radiation and reflecting incoming radiation. If a physical link between these two features can be established, it would provide a mechanism linking solar activity and Earth's climate. Recent satellite observations have further revealed a correlation between cosmic ray flux and low cloud top temperature. The temperature of a cloud depends on the radiation properties determined by its droplet distribution. Low clouds are warm (>273K) and therefore consist of liquid water droplets. At typical atmospheric supersaturations (1%) a liquid cloud drop will only form in the presence of an aerosol, which acts as a condensation site. The droplet distribution of a cloud will then depend on the number of aerosols activated as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and the level of super saturation. Based on observational evidence it is argued that a mechanism to explain the cosmic ray-cloud link might be found through the role of atmospheric ionisation in aerosol production and/or growth. Observations of local aerosol increases in low cloud due to ship exhaust indicate that a small perturbation in atmospheric aerosol can have a major impact on low cloud radiative properties. Thus, a moderate influence on atmospheric aerosol distributions from cosmic ray ionisation would have a strong influence on the Earth's radiation budget. Historical evidence over the past 1000 years indicates that changes in climate have occurred in accord with variability in cosmic ray intensities. Such changes are in agreement with the sign of cloud radiative forcing associated with cosmic ray variability as estimated from satellite observations.     

Collapse,equilibrium, and fragmentation of rotating,adiabatic clouds

Numerical calculations of the collapse of adiabatic clouds from uniform density and rotation initial conditions show that when restricted to axisymmetry, the clouds form either near-equilibrium spheroids or rings. Rings form in the collapse of low thermal energy clouds and have = T/ ¦W¦ 0.43. When the axisymmetric constraint is removed and an initial m=2 density variation is introduced, clouds either collapse to form near-equilibrium ellipsoids or else fragment into binary systems through a bar phase. Ellipsoids form in the collapse of high thermal energy clouds and have 3 0.27. The results are consistent with the critical values of for instabilities in Maclaurin spheroids, and suggest that protostellar clouds may undergo a dynamic fragmentation in the nonisothermal collapse regime.National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council Resident Research Associate.