Mass flow in interacting binaries observed in the ultraviolet

Recent satellite observations of close binary systems show that practically all binaries exhibit evidence of mass flow and that, where the observations are sufficiently detailed, a fraction of the matter flowing out of the mass-losing component is accreted by the companion and the remainder is lost from the binary system. The mass flow is not conservative. During the phase of dynamic mass flow, the companion star becomes immersed in optically-thick plasma and the physical properties of that star elude close scrutiny.     

Evolution of massive close binaries

This paper briefly reviews the competition between massive single star and massive close binary evolution the last two decades. The status of the binary evolutionary model is summarized, the assumptions and simplifications are critically discussed. Using all computations performed since 1970, general conclusions are drawn and a comparison with massive single star evolution is presented. Special attention is given at the assumptions behind the commonly accepted model for the mass gainer and a new accretion model is proposed. The binary results in combinarion with single star evolution are compared with observations of massive stars with emphasis on the HR diagram, star number counts, WR stars, SN 1987A, OBN and OBC stars.     

EXOSAT observations of the X-ray pulsar 4U1145-619

EXOSAT observations of the X-ray pulsar 4U1145-619 during June and July 1983 and July 1984 confirm that this source shows a regular 187 day outburst cycle in X-rays. The results from pulse timing and X-ray spectroscopy are discussed in terms of a model for 4U1145-619 involving an eccentric binary system in which there is variable accretion from the Be primary star onto a companion neutron star.     

Theories of magnetospheres around accreting compact objects

A wide class of galactic X-ray sources are believed to be binary systems where mass is flowing from a normal star to a companion that is a compact object, such as a neutron star. The strong magnetic fields of the compact object create a magnetosphere around it. We review the theoretical models developed to describe the properties of magnetospheres in such accreting binary systems. The size of the magnetosphere can be estimated from pressure balance arguments and is found to be small compared to the over-all size of the accretion region but large compared to the compact object if the latter is a neutron star. In the early models the magnetosphere was assumed to have open funnels in the polar regions, through which accreting plasma could pour in. Later, magnetically closed models were developed, with plasma entry made possible by instabilities at the magnetosphere boundary. The theory of plasma flow inside the magnetosphere has been formulated in analogy to a stellar wind with reversed flow; a complicating factor is the instability of the Alfvén critical point for inflow. In the case of accretion via a well-defined disk, new problems of magnetospheric structure appear, in particular the question to what extent and by what process the magnetic fields from the compact object can penetrate into the accretion disk. Since the X-ray emission is powered by the gravitational energy released in the accretion process, mass transfer into the magnetosphere is of fundamental importance; the various proposed mechanisms are critically examined.Proceedings of the NASA/JPL Workshop on the Physics of Planetary and Astrophysical Magnetospheres.     

Single Degenerate Models for Type Ia Supernovae: Progenitor’s Evolution and Nucleosynthesis Yields

We review how the single degenerate models for Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) works. In the binary star system of a white dwarf (WD) and its non-degenerate companion star, the WD accretes either hydrogen-rich matter or helium and undergoes hydrogen and helium shell-burning. We summarize how the stability and non-linear behavior of such shell-burning depend on the accretion rate and the WD mass and how the WD blows strong wind. We identify the following evolutionary routes for the accreting WD to trigger a thermonuclear explosion. Typically, the accretion rate is quite high in the early stage and gradually decreases as a result of mass transfer. With decreasing rate, the WD evolves as follows: (1) At a rapid accretion phase, the WD increase its mass by stable H burning and blows a strong wind to keep its moderate radius. The wind is strong enough to strip a part of the companion star’s envelope to control the accretion rate and forms circumstellar matter (CSM). If the WD explodes within CSM, it is observed as an “SN Ia-CSM”. (X-rays emitted by the WD are absorbed by CSM.) (2) If the WD continues to accrete at a lower rate, the wind stops and an SN Ia is triggered under steady-stable H shell-burning, which is observed as a super-soft X-ray source: “SN Ia-SSXS”. (3) If the accretion continues at a still lower rate, H shell-burning becomes unstable and many flashes recur. The WD undergoes recurrent nova (RN) whose mass ejection is smaller than the accreted matter. Then the WD evolves to an “SN Ia-RN”. (4) If the companion is a He star (or a He WD), the accretion of He can trigger He and C double detonations at the sub-Chandrasekhar mass or the WD grows to the Chandrasekhar mass while producing a He-wind: “SN Ia-He CSM”. (5) If the accreting WD rotates quite rapidly, the WD mass can exceed the Chandrasekhar mass of the spherical WD, which delays the trigger of an SN Ia. After angular momentum is lost from the WD, the (super-Chandra) WD contracts to become a delayed SN Ia. The companion star has become a He WD and CSM has disappeared: “SN Ia-He WD”. We update nucleosynthesis yields of the carbon deflagration model W7, delayed detonation model WDD2, and the sub-Chandrasekhar mass model to provide some constraints on the yields (such as Mn) from the comparison with the observations. We note the important metallicity effects on ⁵⁸Ni and ⁵⁵Mn.     

Towards a Unified View of Inhomogeneous Stellar Winds in Isolated Supergiant Stars and Supergiant High Mass X-Ray Binaries

Massive stars, at least \(\sim10\) times more massive than the Sun, have two key properties that make them the main drivers of evolution of star clusters, galaxies, and the Universe as a whole. On the one hand, the outer layers of massive stars are so hot that they produce most of the ionizing ultraviolet radiation of galaxies; in fact, the first massive stars helped to re-ionize the Universe after its Dark Ages. Another important property of massive stars are the strong stellar winds and outflows they produce. This mass loss, and finally the explosion of a massive star as a supernova or a gamma-ray burst, provide a significant input of mechanical and radiative energy into the interstellar space. These two properties together make massive stars one of the most important cosmic engines: they trigger the star formation and enrich the interstellar medium with heavy elements, that ultimately leads to formation of Earth-like rocky planets and the development of complex life. The study of massive star winds is thus a truly multidisciplinary field and has a wide impact on different areas of astronomy.In recent years observational and theoretical evidences have been growing that these winds are not smooth and homogeneous as previously assumed, but rather populated by dense “clumps”. The presence of these structures dramatically affects the mass loss rates derived from the study of stellar winds. Clump properties in isolated stars are nowadays inferred mostly through indirect methods (i.e., spectroscopic observations of line profiles in various wavelength regimes, and their analysis based on tailored, inhomogeneous wind models). The limited characterization of the clump physical properties (mass, size) obtained so far have led to large uncertainties in the mass loss rates from massive stars. Such uncertainties limit our understanding of the role of massive star winds in galactic and cosmic evolution.Supergiant high mass X-ray binaries (SgXBs) are among the brightest X-ray sources in the sky. A large number of them consist of a neutron star accreting from the wind of a massive companion and producing a powerful X-ray source. The characteristics of the stellar wind together with the complex interactions between the compact object and the donor star determine the observed X-ray output from all these systems. Consequently, the use of SgXBs for studies of massive stars is only possible when the physics of the stellar winds, the compact objects, and accretion mechanisms are combined together and confronted with observations.This detailed review summarises the current knowledge on the theory and observations of winds from massive stars, as well as on observations and accretion processes in wind-fed high mass X-ray binaries. The aim is to combine in the near future all available theoretical diagnostics and observational measurements to achieve a unified picture of massive star winds in isolated objects and in binary systems.     

Semidetached systems: Evolutionary viewpoints and observational constraints

The present knowledge on the evolution of semidetached systems is reviewed. Characteristics of observed systems are discussed and general properties tested by the behaviour of theoretical models. New models of mass accreting companion stars are computed. The accretion phase is divided into a fast and slow phase with an accretion rate depending on the initial mass of the mass losing star and on the initial mass ratio, assuming the systems are undergoing a case B of mass transfer. The results are compared with observed systems with masses of the gainers located within the theoretical range. Up to now no computations exist for the evolution of medium mass close binaries including overshooting of the convective core. However some of the influences of extended convective mixing on the interaction of close binaries are investigated. A larger probability for the occurrence of case A of mass exchange and a larger remnant mass at the end of the process are the most important results. Finally the investigation into the origin of individual systems (in mass, mass ratio and period) is discussed, showing that progress both in observations and in theoretical models result in a more detailed and more restricted determination of the initial parameters of the individual systems.Research associate, NFWO, Belgium.     

On the evolution of secondary components in massive close binary systems

For the evolution of the secondary component of a massive close binary system, it is generally assumed that the mass accretion during core H-burning simply leads to its rejuvenation, i.e. that it evolves like a normal main sequence star with a mass corresponding to its mass after the accretion ceased. We reinvestigate this problem in the framework of a time-dependent semiconvection theory. We find that the process of adaptation of the convective core size to the new (larger) stellar mass may not be completed until core hydrogen depletion, i.e. no rejuvenation occurs. The resulting secondaries show strong differences compared to single stars of same mass.     

The evolution of moderately close and moderately wide binaries

We discuss evolutionary processes in binaries where the primary becomes a red giant with a deep convective envelope before it fills its Roche lobe. Such binaries (late Case B or late Case C, if they evolve conservatively) ought to suffer drastic mass transfer, on a hydrodynamic timescale. In some circumstances this may lead to a common envelope, spiral-in, and finally either a very short-period binary or coalescence. But there appear to be other circumstances in which the outcome is an ordinary Algol, or a wide binary with a white dwarf companion as in Barium stars and some symbiotics. We try to demonstrate that stellar-wind mass loss, enhanced one or two orders of magnitude by tidal interaction with a companion, can vitally affect the approach to RLOF, and indeed may prevent RLOF in binaries with periods over 1000 d. Such mass loss is probably accompanied by angular momentum loss, by magnetic braking combined with tidal friction. The result is that it will not be easy to predict definitively the outcome of evolution in a given zero-age binary.     

The evolution of moderately close and moderately wide binaries

We discuss evolutionary processes in binaries where the primary becomes a red giant with a deep convective envelope before it fills its Roche lobe. Such binaries (late Case B or late Case C, if they evolve conservatively) ought to suffer drastic mass transfer, on a hydrodynamic timescale. In some circumstances this may lead to a common envelope, spiral-in, and finally either a very short-period binary or coalescence. But there appear to be other circumstances in which the outcome is an ordinary Algol, or a wide binary with a white dwarf companion as in Barium stars and some symbiotics. We try to demonstrate that stellar-wind mass loss, enhanced one or two orders of magnitude by tidal interaction with a companion, can vitally affect the approach to RLOF, and indeed may prevent RLOF in binaries with periods over 1000 d. Such mass loss is probably accompanied by angular momentum loss, by magnetic braking combined with tidal friction. The result is that it will not be easy to predict definitively the outcome of evolution in a given zero-age binary.     

The evolution of massive stars

The evolution of stars with masses between 15 M ₀ and 100M ₀ is considered. Stars in this mass range lose a considerable fraction of their matter during their evolution.The treatment of convection, semi-convection and the influence of mass loss by stellar winds at different evolutionary phases are analysed as well as the adopted opacities.Evolutionary sequences computed by various groups are examined and compared with observations, and the advanced evolution of a 15M ₀ and a 25M ₀ star from zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) through iron collapse is discussed.The effect of centrifugal forces on stellar wind mass loss and the influence of rotation on evolutionary models is examined. As a consequence of the outflow of matter deeper layers show up and when the mass loss rates are large enough layers with changed composition, due to interior nuclear reactions, appear on the surface.The evolution of massive close binaries as well during the phase of mass loss by stellar wind as during the mass exchange and mass loss phase due to Roche lobe overflow is treated in detail, and the value of the parameters governing mass and angular momentum losses are discussed.The problem of the Wolf-Rayet stars, their origin and the possibilities of their production either as single stars or as massive binaries is examined.Finally, the origin of X-ray binaries is discussed and the scenario for the formation of these objects (starting from massive ZAMS close binaries, through Wolf-Rayet binaries leading to OB-stars with a compact companion after a supernova explosion) is reviewed and completed, including stellar wind mass loss.     

SN 1987A and SN 1993J: Testing stellar evolution theory?

Nearby supernovae like SN 1987A and SN 1993J provide valuable constraints on the late evolution of massive stars. For this purpose, we review evolutionary models for the progenitor of SN 1987A and confront them with five observational/theoretical tests we devised. We show that single-star models (with the possible exception of rapid-rotation models) fail at least two of these tests, while two binary models (accretion and merger models) are consistent with all available constraints. We conclude that it is most likely that the progenitor of SN 1987A had a binary companion, either at the time of the explosion or at least in the not-too-distant past, and that SN 1987A should therefore not be used to calibrate single stellar evolution theory. For SN 1993J, we infer from the presupernova photometry and the early light curve that its progenitor was a 15M star that lost almost all of its hydrogen-rich envelope prior to the supernova. This seems to require that the progenitor underwent stable case C mass transfer. We discuss future observational tests of binary models for both supernovae.     

Photometric effects of accretion disks in long-period eclipsing binaries

Summary A multi-year photometric program on long-period eclipsing binaries has begun to uncover some properties of accretion disks in these systems. Emission and transmission properties can sometimes be found from light curve features produced by partial eclipses of the disk by the cool star, and by partial occultations of the cool star by the disk. These disks do not have the classical alpha structure. They are optically thin normal to the orbital plane, but may be geometrically thicker than purely gravitationally-stratified disks. Disk gas may be contaminated by dust particles acquired from the outer layers of the cool loser. In some systems, high states, produced by elevated mass accretion by the hot star, occur, suggesting that the mass distribution in the disk is clumpy. However mass-transfer rates are found, they lie between 10^-7 and 10^-6 solar masses per year.While this binary sample is small at the moment, some of its properties are shared with other systems. The author has five-color observations of about a dozen additional systems, which may fill out this picture more fully.     

A 0535 + 26/HDE 245770: A typical X-ray/Be system

Among the X-ray/Be systems, A 0535 + 26/HDE 245770 has been noted, since its discovery, for its peculiar features in several respects, in a wide energy range. For this reason and for a series of concomitant favorable causes, this system has been one of the most studied among the massive X-ray binary systems. The most remarkable incident was that its optical identification with an early-type-emission-line star (O9.7IIIe) has led to a deep studies on Be stars and their interactions with neutron stars, which have allowed to discover, without unbiguity, the presence of optical indicators of consequent X-ray flares, as well as that Be stars in X-ray/Be systems behave just as normal Be stars. Overmore, thanks to the multifrequency coordinated observations of this system, the X-ray emissions from binary companion of the Be stars are best explained by assuming the presence of a thick equatorial disk with low expansion velocity and a thin polar region with high expansion velocity. This picture reconciled the strong discrepancy in mass loss rate evaluations coming from IR and from UV measurements, assuming that the observed regions are enterely distinct from each other, one being a high-density, low-velocity region, and the other being a low-density, very hot, rapidly-expanding disk-like zone.Since, this picture seems to be the best up-to-date frame to cuckold all the experimental panorama available on X-ray/Be systems, we would like to paint in this paper the multifrequency behaviour of A 0535 + 26/HDE 245770, which is the best studied among such systems, in order to stimulate future coordinated experimental-theoretical works on this very interesting class of objects.     

Tenma observations of bright binary X-ray sources

Spectroscopic study of bright binary X-ray sources, performed with the gas scintillation proportional counters on board Tenma, is reviewed. Properties of an iron emission line from two classes of bright binary X-ray sources: X-ray pulsars and low-mass binary sources, are first presented. It is shown that a most likely candidate for the line emitting region is an Alfven shell in case of X-ray pulsars, whereas that of low mass binary sources is an outer accretion disk. Next, nature of the continuum emission from low-mass binary sources is consistently interpreted by a picture that an optically thick accretion disk extends down to very near the surface of a weakly magnetized neutron star. Origin of ultrasoft spectra of black hole candidate sources is also discussed.     

EXOSAT observations of the contact binary VW Cephei

EXOSAT observations of the contact binary VW Cephei on 19th March 1984 are presented. The L1-telescope with CMA+thick Lexan filter was used. The observations cover one orbital revolution showing an asymmetrical X-ray light curve. This can be modelled by an active neck, connecting the two stars, and with enhanced coronal regions on the primary star. Nearly simultaneous IUE observations are also presented. The observations form a part of the program to observe contact binaries with EXOSAT.     

Long-term cycles in cosmic X-ray sources

Most of what we know about galactic X-ray binaries comes from their time variation, particularly periodic variations corresponding to neutron star rotation, and binary motion. Longer cycles or quasi-cycles are much harder to observe because of the shortage of instrumentation suitable for long-term monitoring. Nonetheless, cycle with periods up to a few years have been seen in several galactic binaries.Cycles of 30–300 days have been confirmed for four high-mass systems, LMC X-4, Her X-1, SS433, and Cyg X-1, and are suspected in several others. These cycles are observed in both the X-ray and optical bands, and represent cyclic variations in both the inner and outer parts of the accretion disk. Some component of these systems is precessing, but we are not certain which. It could be a misaligned companion star; the outer rim of the accretion disk, driven by radiative feedback; or the neutron star.Several low-mass X-ray binaries have quasi-periodic cycles, with periods ranging from 1/2 to 2 years. The amplitude of modulation ranges between 50 and 100%, i.e., both persistent and transient objects fall into this class. This activity is reminiscent of the superoutburst cycles of the SU UMa cataclysmic variables, and may be caused by similar mass-transfer instabilities.Periodic outbursts in the Be/neutron star systems seem to result from variable mass transfer in a wide, eccentric orbit. The relationship between the orbital cycle and the flux outbursts, however, is not well understood, and even the equivalence of the outburst and binary cycles remains hypothetical for most objects. Most likely, the periodic outbursts result from enhanced mass transfer at periastron.Compared to other aspects of X-ray astronomy, long-term activity has been much less intensively studied by both observers and theoreticians. A simple all-sky monitor in permanent operation could provide for the X-ray sky the same kind of data base provided to optical observers by the Harvard plates.     

Results of evolutionary computations of primaries of close binaries with different initial composition

The present paper summarizes fundamental evolutionary parameters of primaries of close binaries with initial masses between 9 and 60 M_⊙ and initial composition appropriate for the Galaxy, the LMC and the SMC. The primary timescales and WR binary timescales are compared with corresponding recent single star predictions.     

A gentle process for the formation of Algols

This work is concerned with binary systems that we call ‘moderately close’. These are systems in which the primary (by which we mean the initially more massive star) fills its Roche lobe when it is on the giant branch with a deep convective envelope but before helium ignition (late case B). We find that if the mass ratio q(= M ₁/M ₂) < q _crit = 0.7 when the primary fills its Roche lobe positive feedback will lead to a rapid hydrodynamic phase of mass transfer which will probably lead to common envelope evolution and thence to either coalescence or possibly to a close binary in a planetary nebula. Although most Algols have probably filled their Roche lobes before evolving off the main-sequence we find that some could not have and are therefore ‘moderately close’. Since rapid overflow is unlikely to lead to an Algol-like system there must be some way of avoiding it. The most likely possibility is that the primary can lose sufficient mass to reduce q below q _crit before overflow begins. Ordinary mass loss rates are insufficient but evidence that enhanced mass loss does take place is provided by RS CVn systems that have inverted mass ratios but have not yet begun mass transfer. We postulate that the cause of enhanced mass loss lies in the heating of the corona by by magnetic fields maintained by an α — ω dynamo which is enhanced by tidal effects associated with corotation. In order to model the the effects of enhanced mass loss we ignore the details and adopt an empirical approach calibrating a simple formula with the RS CVn system Z Her. Using further empirical relations (deduced from detailed stellar models) that describe the evolution of red giants we have investigated the effect on a large number of systems of various initial mass ratios and periods. These are notable in that some systems can now enter a much gentler Algol-like overflow phase and others are prevented from transferring mass altogether. We have also investigated the effects of enhanced angular momentum loss induced by corotation of the wind in the strong magnetic fields and consider this in relation to observed period changes. We find that a typical ‘moderately close’ Algol-like system evolves through an RS CVn like system and then possibly a symbiotic state before becoming an Algol and then goes on through a red giant-white dwarf state which may become symbiotic before ending up as a double white dwarf system in either a close or wide orbit depending on how much mass is lost before the secondary fills its Roche lobe.     

Accretion disks in Algols

Basic theoretical concepts concerning formation and properties of disks in close binary systems are reviewed and compared with observations of Algols.