HZE particle effects in space

Among the various particulate components of ionizing radiation in space, heavy ions (the so-called HZE particles) have been of special concern to radiobiologists. To understand the ways by which HZE particles of cosmic radiation interact with biological systems, methods have been developed to precisely localize the trajectory of an HZE particle relative to the biological object and to correlate the physical data of the particle with the biological effects observed along its path. In a variety of test systems, injuries were traced back to the traversal of a single HZE particle, such as somatic mutations, and chromosomal aberrations in plant seeds, development disturbances and malformations in insect and salt shrimp embryos, or cell death in bacterial spores. In the latter case, a long-ranging killing effect around the particle's track was observed. Whereas, from spaceflight experiments, substantial infomation has been accumulated on single HZE particle effects in resting systems and in a few embryonic systems, there is a paucity of data on cosmic radiation effects in whole tissues or animals, especially mammalians.     

Radiation protection in space

Radiation environment, basic concepts of radiation protection, and specific aspects of the space radiation field are reviewed. The discussion of physico-chemical and subcellular radiation effects includes mechanisms of radiation action and cellular consequences. The discussion of radiobiological effects includes unique aspects of HZE particle effects, space flight findings, terrestrial findings, analysis of somatic radiation effects and effects on critical organs, and early and delayed effects. Other topics include the impact of the space flight environment, measurement of radiation exposure, establishing radiation protection limits, limitations in establishing space-based radiation exposure limits, radiation protection measures, and recommendations.     

Effects of HZE particle on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in a future Mars mission

Because of long duration travel outside the Earth's magnetic field, the effect of iron-rich high charge and energy (HZE) particles in Galactic Cosmic Rays on human body is the major concern in radiation protection. Recently attention has been directed to effects on the central nervous system in addition to mutagenic effects. In particular, a reduction in striatal dopamine content on nigrostriatal dopaminergic system has been reported by investigators using accelerated iron ions in ground-based mammalian studies. In addition, studies of the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease demonstrated that excess iron cause a reduction in the dopamine content in the substantia nigra. This suggests an intriguing possibility to explain the selective detrimental effects of HZE particles on the dopaminergic system. Should these particles have biochemical effects, possible options for countermeasures are: (1) nutritional prevention, (2) medication, and (3) surgical placement of a stimulator electrode at a specific anatomic site in the basal ganglia.     

The biological effectiveness of HZE-particles of cosmic radiation studied in the Apollo 16 and 17 Biostack experiments

The Biostack experiments I and II were flown on board the Apollo 16 and 17 command modules in order to obtain information on the biological damage produced by the bombardment of heavy high-energy (HZE) particles of cosmic radiation during spaceflight. Such data are required for estimating radiation hazards in manned spaceflight. Seven biological systems in resting state (Bacillus subtilis spores, Colpoda cucullus cysts, Arabidopsis thaliana seeds, and eggs of Artemia salina, Tribolium castaneum and of Carausius morosus) were accommodated in the two Biostacks. By using a special sandwich construction of visual track detectors and layers of biological objects, identification of each hit biological object was achieved and the possible biological damage correlated with the physical features of the responsible HZE-particle. In the different systems the degree of damage depended on whether the hit cell was replaceable or not. A high sensitivity to HZE-particle bombardment was observed on Artemia salina eggs; 90% of the embryos, which were induced to develop from hit eggs, died at different developmental stages. Malformations of the abdomen or the extremities of the nauplius were frequently induced. In contrast, the growth of hit Vicia faba radiculae and the germination of hit Arabidopsis thaliana seeds and hit Bacillus subtilis spores were not influenced remarkably. But there was an increase in multicaulous plants and a reduction in the outgrowth of the bacterial spores. In addition, information was obtained on the fluence of the HZE-particles, on their spectrum of charge and energy loss, and on the absorption by the Apollo spacecraft and the Biostack material itself. This will help to improve knowledge concerning radiation conditions inside of spacecrafts, necessary to secure a maximum possible protection to the astronauts.     

Study of radiation conditions onboard the International space station by means of the Liulin-5 dosimeter

For estimating radiation risk in space flights it is necessary to determine radiation dose obtained by critical organs of a human body. For this purpose the experiments with human body models are carried out onboard spacecraft. These models represent phantoms equipped with passive and active radiation detectors which measure dose distributions at places of location of critical organs. The dosimetric Liulin-5 telescope is manufactured with using three silicon detectors for studying radiation conditions in the spherical tissue-equivalent phantom on the Russian segment of the International space station (ISS). The purpose of the experiment with Liulin-5 instrument is to study dynamics of the dose rate and particle flux in the phantom, as well as variations of radiation conditions on the ISS over long time intervals depending on a phase of the solar activity cycle, orbital parameters, and presence of solar energetic particles. The Liulin-5 dosimeter measures simultaneously the dose rate and fluxes of charged particles at three depths in the radial channel of the phantom, as well as the linear energy transfer. The paper presents the results of measurements of dose rate and particle fluxes caused by various radiation field components on the ISS during the period from June 2007 till December 2009.     

Medical considerations for extending human presence in space

The prospects for extending the length of time that humans can safely remain in space depend partly on resolution of a number of medical issues. Physiologic effects of weightlessness that may affect health during flight include loss of body fluid, functional alterations in the cardiovascular system, loss of red blood cells and bone mineral, compromised immune system function, and neurosensory disturbances. Some of the physiologic adaptations to weightlessness contribute to difficulties with readaptation to Earth's gravity. These include cardiovascular deconditioning and loss of body fluids and electrolytes; red blood cell mass; muscle mass, strength, and endurance; and bone mineral. Potentially harmful factors in space flight that are not related to weightlessness include radiation, altered circadian rhythms and rest/work cycles, and the closed, isolated environment of the spacecraft. There is no evidence that space flight has long-term effects on humans, except that bone mass lost during flight may not be replaced, and radiation damage is cumulative. However, the number of people who have spent several months or longer in space is still small. Only carefully-planned experiments in space preceded by thorough ground-based studies can provide the information needed to increase the amount of time humans can safely spend in space.     

Space radiation enhancement linked to geomagnetic disturbances

Space radiation dosimetry measurements have been made on board the Space Shuttle. A newly developed active detector called "Real-time Radiation Monitoring Device (RRMD)" was used (Doke et al., 1995; Hayashi et al., 1995). The RRMD results indicate that low Linear Energy Transfer (LET) particles steadily penetrate around the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) without clear enhancement of dose equivalent and some daily periodic enhancements of dose equivalent due to high LET particles are seen at the lower geomagnetic cutoff regions (Doke et al., 1996). We also have been analyzing the space weather during the experiment, and found that the anomalous high-energy particle enhancement was linked to geomagnetic disturbance due to the high speed solar wind from a coronal hole. Additional analysis and other experiments are necessary for clarification of these phenomena. If a penetration of high-energy particles into the low altitude occurs by common geomagnetic disturbances, the prediction of geomagnetic activity becomes more important in the next Space Station's era.     

Spacecraft “Foton-M” in-flight thermal conditions

The problem of thermal conditions aboard the “Foton-M” spacecraft during its orbital flight is under consideration in this paper. The problem is very acute for performing microgravity experiments onboard of the orbital platform, because on one hand, many experiments need a definite temperature range to be performed, and on the other hand all electrical devices aboard radiate heat. To avoid uncontrolled heating of the environment special heat exchangers are used. To transport heat from different places of the capsule to heat exchanger special fans are installed given definite orientation. All the heat exchange facilities should be designed in advance being adjusted to current capsule loading and heat radiation by equipment. Thus special tools are needed predicting the capsule thermal conditions being function of equipment placement.The present paper introduces a new developed prognostic mathematical model able to forecast temperature distribution inside the capsule with account of fan induced air flows, thermal irradiation by scientific equipment and heat losses due to cooling system.     

空间辐射环境单粒子效应研究

文章介绍了空间辐射环境对航天器电子元器件产生的单粒子效应的国内外研究情况,从环境模拟方法、模拟试验设备、单粒子效应及防护以及飞行试验等方面进行了分析比较。文章对国内研究发展提出了一些建设性的建议。     

Some Results of Monitoring the Radiation Conditions onboard the <Emphasis Type="Italic">International Space Station</Emphasis> (2000–2003)

For a reliable prediction of dose loads on a crew and its habitation environment, which, so far, cannot be calculated with sufficient accuracy, an experimental study of the dynamics of radiation situation characteristics in the modules of the manned International Space Station (ISS) is carried out. The results of prompt monitoring and individual dose control of the crews of seven basic missions in the period of flight from August 1, 2000, to October 28, 2003, are presented. This period of time coincided with the maximum phase of solar activity. On the basis of comparing the measurement data, it was shown that the value of an accumulated individual absorbed dose did not exceed the limits of readings of a two-channel standard R-16 radiometer. The power of the radiation dose absorbed by crew members lies within the range 0.017–0.02 cGy/day and mainly depends on the solar activity level.     

平流层飞艇热力学模型和上升过程仿真分析

建立了平流层飞艇的热力学控制模型,并采用该模型对飞艇的上升过程进行了仿真分析。分析表明,飞艇上升过程中的热力学和动态传热过程对飞艇的浮力和飞行控制有重要影响;飞艇上升过程中,为保持艇内外压差,需维持较大的空气出流量,艇内气体随外界压力降低膨胀做功,飞艇会处于较大的超冷状态,飞艇与外界大气的对流换热和日照条件下吸收太阳热辐射能量,可减轻飞艇的超冷状态;飞艇上升速率越快,艇内外气体温差越大,飞艇超冷状态越严重,净静升力降低越大。     

Internal reference frames for representation and storage of visual information: the role of gravity.

Experimental studies of visual mechanisms suggests that the CNS represents image information with respect to preferred horizontal and vertical axes, as shown by a phenomenon known as the "oblique effect". In the current study we used this effect to evaluate the influence of gravity on the representation and storage of visual orientation information. Subjects performed a psychophysical task in which a visually-presented stimulus line was aligned with the remembered orientation of a reference stimulus line presented moments before. The experiments were made on 5 cosmonauts during orbital space flight and additionally on 13 subjects in conditions of normal gravity with a tilting chair. Data were analyzed with respect to response variability and timing. On earth, these measurements for this task show a distinct preference for horizontally and vertically oriented stimuli when the body and gravitational axes were aligned. This preference was markedly decreased or disappeared when the body axis was tilted with respect to gravity; this effect was not connected with ocular counter-rolling nor could we find a preference of any other intermediate axis between the gravity and body aligned axes. On the other hand, the preference for vertical and horizontal axes was maintained for tests performed in microgravity over the course of a 6 month flight, starting from flight day 6. We concluded that subjects normally process visual orientation information in a multi-modal reference frame that combines both proprioceptive and gravitational cues when both are available, but that a proprioceptive reference frame is sufficient for this task in the absence of gravity after a short period of adaptation. Some of the results from this study have been previously published in a preliminary report. Grant numbers: 99-04-48450.     

Future investigations onboard Soviet biosatellites of the Cosmos series.

Many rat experiments onboard Cosmos biosatellites have furnished information concerning the effects of weightlessness, artificial gravity, and ionizing radiation combined with weightlessness on structural and biochemical parameters of the animal body. The necessity to expand the scope of physiological investigations has led to the project of flight primate studies. It is planned to carry out the first primate experiments onboard the Cosmos biosatellite in 1982. At present investigations of weightlessness effects on the cardiovascular and vestibular systems, higher nervous activity, skeletal muscles and biorhythms of two rhesus monkeys are being developed and tested. It is also planned to conduct a study of weightlessness effects on embryogenesis of rats and bioenergetics of living systems onboard the same biosatellite. Further experiments onboard Cosmos biosatellites are planned.     

Predictors of immune function in space flight

Of all of the environmental conditions of space flight that might have an adverse effect upon human immunity and the incidence of infection, space radiation stands out as the single-most important threat. As important as this would be on humans engaged in long and deep space flight, it obviously is not possible to plan Earth-bound radiation and infection studies in humans. Therefore, we propose to develop a murine model that could predict the adverse effects of space flight radiation and reactivation of latent virus infection for humans. Recent observations on the effects of gamma and latent virus infection demonstrate latent virus reactivation and loss of T cell mediated immune responses in a murine model. We conclude that using this small animal method of quantitating the amounts of radiation and latent virus infection and resulting alterations in immune responses, it may be possible to predict the degree of immunosuppression in interplanetary space travel for humans. Moreover, this model could be extended to include other space flight conditions, such as microgravity, sleep deprivation, and isolation, to obtain a more complete assessment of space flight risks for humans.     

空间辐射环境工程的现状及发展趋势

空间辐射环境是航天器在轨运行所面临的重要环境要素之一,因其诱发的单粒子效应、总剂量效应、位移损伤效应、表面充放电效应、内带电效应等既可引起航天器材料、器件、结构等在轨损伤、性能退化甚至失效,然而又可以利用其开展空间育种等活动。文章从空间辐射环境与模型、空间辐射效应及机理、空间辐射环境与效应试验的评价标准、空间辐射环境效应试验方法、空间辐射环境与效应地面模拟试验设备、空间辐射环境与效应数值模拟、空间辐射环境与效应飞行试验及抗辐射加固技术等角度对空间辐射环境工程的现状进行了评述,进而提出了空间辐射环境工程各个领域的发展趋势。     

固体火箭尾舱热环境研究

对固体火箭尾舱热环境的组成成分进行了分析，利用理论和数值仿真方法，给出固体火箭沿真实飞行轨道条件下的热环境预示结果，并与地面试验及飞行试验测量结果进行对比。结果表明，固体火箭尾舱热环境存在天地差异，在地面发动机试车状态时，尾舱热环境以喷流辐射热流为主；真实飞行状态时，在发动机喷流和高速来流的相互作用下，火箭尾舱还存在量值更大的对流热流。针对固体火箭尾舱对流热环境提出的线性化热学参数单一介质数值模拟方法可用于固体火箭尾舱热环境设计。     

Short duration microgravity experiments in physical and life sciences during parabolic flights: the first 30 ESA campaigns

Aircraft parabolic flights provide repetitively up to 20 s of reduced gravity during ballistic flight manoeuvres. Parabolic flights are used to conduct short microgravity investigations in Physical and Life Sciences, to test instrumentation and to train astronauts before a space flight. The European Space Agency (ESA) has organized since 1984 thirty parabolic flight campaigns for microgravity research experiments utilizing six different airplanes. More than 360 experiments were successfully conducted during more than 2800 parabolas, representing a cumulated weightlessness time of 15 h 30 m. This paper presents the short duration microgravity research programme of ESA. The experiments conducted during these campaigns are summarized, and the different airplanes used by ESA are shortly presented. The technical capabilities of the Airbus A300 'Zero-G' are addressed. Some Physical Science, Technology and Life Science experiments performed during the last ESA campaigns with the Airbus A300 are presented to show the interest of this unique microgravity research tool to complement, support and prepare orbital microgravity investigations.     

三轴飞行仿真转台频带拓宽技术研究

将广泛应用于机器人手臂控制等其它柔性控制系统的输入指令整形减振技术移植到转台应用中,并对输入指令整形器的设计方法、对系统参数变化的鲁棒性进行了探讨和研究,最后以某单轴台控制系统为对象进行了实验,结果表明,输入指令整形器以前馈的形式应用于单轴台的控制系统时,既不影响系统的稳定性,又可以很好地抑制频带拓宽时的机械谐振,而且对系统参数变化具有较高的鲁棒性.此外,因其算法简单,且容易实现和调试,所以可作为拓宽飞行仿真转台频带的一种新途径.     

Prospective life-science payloads

A viable spacelab programme is based on the thesis that biomedical specialists require a quantifiable, and possibly mechanistic, understanding of the significant changes observed in crew, in and after manned space flights. Only then can prophylaxis or atraumatic reversal be achieved (with potentially an added use to ameliorate qualitatively similar disease aspects on Earth). This approach could justify national funding to promote lead-up ground-based research as well as research and development for special equipment, of which the "spin-off" into clinical practice could well precede its first use in Spacelab. The requirement for "applied expediency" arises from the watershed met early in the evolution of a life-sciences programme. Initially, the facility of space flight provoked numerous valid experiments designed to test for, or quantitate, gravity-dependent mechanisms and their interaction with other agents, radiation, vibration, or absence of triggers for rhythmic patterns. In parallel, measurable parameters of man's function in space were being monitored, primarily to promote survival by remedial action when available. Monitoring data were then developed to find a critical mechanism feasible to testing. Often the rationale for such tests and experiments was that "man was there" and could, moreover, attend to several biological experiments in space! The watershed appeared when man in a Spacelab was shown as a hazard to the instrumentation, cleanliness, accuracy, thermal control, weight limits, etc. essential to the other disciplines. Other than the life sciences only the technological requirements of materials processing required a manned spacelab! So, life scientists have needed to rethink their payloads, and their constrictions, to plan for compatible load sharing. A composite of proposed biomedical projects related to apparently unanswered etiology of observed changes in returning astronauts will be used to illustrate the evolution of and possible answers to sample problems. The principles outlined, their moderation by expediency (with the untouched upon need for the enthusiastic involvement of biomedical potential in space projects) should remain our guidelines. This is in spite of the expected obsolescence of these specific projects within the next decade.     

深空辐射环境对航天活动的危害及对策

深空辐射环境是影响深空探测任务的一个主要因素,它主要包括太阳粒子事件、银河宇宙射线、俘获辐射带和黑体表面辐射。文章分析了它对航天活动的危害,并探讨了相应的对策。