International space station: : Ready to fly

The International Space Station (ISS) is no longer a paper program, focused on design, development and planning. It is an operational program, with hardware soon to be launched and ground systems in place. Additional modules, components and elements are now under construction in almost all of the 16 ISS International Partner and Participant countries, with metal being bent, software being written, and testing ongoing. Crew members for the first four crews are in training in the U.S. and Russia, with the first crew launching in mid 1999. Mission control centers are fully functioning in Houston and Moscow, with operations centers in St. Hubert, Darmstadt, Tsukuba, Turino, and Huntsville going on line as they are required.

The International Space Station, as the largest international civil program in history, features unprecedented technical, managerial, and international complexity. Seven international partners and participants encompassing 15 countries are involved in the ISS. Each partner is contributing and will be operating separate pieces of hardware, to be integrated on-orbit into a single orbital station. Mission control centers, launch vehicles, astronauts/cosmonauts, and support services will be provided by partners across the globe, but must function in a coordinated, integrated fashion. This paper will review the accomplishments of the ISS Program and each of the Partners and Participants over the past year, focusing on completed milestones and hardware. It will also give a status report on the development of the remainder of the ISS modules and components by each Partner and Participant, and discuss upcoming challenges.     

The International Space Station: a pathway to the future

Nearly six years after the launch of the first International Space Station element, and four years after its initial occupation, the United States and our 6 international partners have made great strides in operating this impressive Earth orbiting research facility. This past year we have done so in the face of the adversity of operating without the benefit of the Space Shuttle. In his January 14, 2004, speech announcing a new vision for America's space program, President Bush affirmed the United States' commitment to completing construction of the International Space Station by 2010. The President also stated that we would focus our future research aboard the Station on the long-term effects of space travel on human biology. This research will help enable human crews to venture through the vast voids of space for months at a time. In addition, ISS affords a unique opportunity to serve as an engineering test bed for hardware and operations critical to the exploration tasks. NASA looks forward to working with our partners on International Space Station research that will help open up new pathways for future exploration and discovery beyond low Earth orbit. This paper provides an overview of the International Space Station Program focusing on a review of the events of the past year, as well as plans for next year and the future.     

The European Astronaut Centre prepares for International Space Station operations

The European Space Agency (ESA) contribution to the International Space Station (ISS) goes much beyond the delivery of hardware like the Columbus Laboratory, its payloads and the Automated Transfer Vehicles. ESA Astronauts will be members of the ISS crew. ESA, according to its commitments as ISS international partner, will be responsible to provide training on its elements and payloads to all ISS crewmembers and medical support for ESA astronauts. The European Astronaut Centre (EAC) in Cologne has developed over more than a decade into the centre of expertise for manned space activities within ESA by contributing to a number of important co-operative spaceflight missions. This role will be significantly extended for ISS manned operations. Apart from its support to ESA astronauts and their onboard operations, EAC will have a key role in training all ISS astronauts on ESA elements and payloads. The medical support of ISS crew, in particular of ESA astronauts has already started. This paper provides an overview on status and further plans in building up this homebase function for ESA astronauts and on the preparation towards Training Readiness for ISS crew training at EAC, Cologne. Copyright 2001 by the European Space Agency. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission. Released to IAF/IAA/AIAA to publish in all forms.     

The Space Shuttle—Evaluating an American icon

The Space Transportation System (STS), for better or worse, has dominated the US space program for some 30 years and is now an American icon. The Space Shuttle orbiters have flown over 120 missions and certainly accomplished some amazing feats, including the deployment of the International Space Station (ISS), the launch and double repair of the Hubble Telescope, a number of classified missions for the US defense establishment and the cementing of international cooperation in space. As the remaining Space Shuttle orbiters head toward various museums, it is timely to look at the STS program in terms of key US space policy decisions that have paralleled the Space Shuttle’s often troubled history. This article seeks, from both a historical and a policy perspective, to assess what might have been. While noting the major accomplishments of the STS, it also identifies what can best be characterized as major lost opportunities and flawed policy decisions that have had multi-billion dollar consequences. In this regard, the US Congress, the White House, and NASA leadership have all played a role. If there have been failings, they have not been by NASA alone, but the entire US space policy leadership.     

Regulating ISS— An interdisciplinary essay

The International Space Station (ISS) is a multifaceted international project. Several space agencies from different countries work together in the Outer Space. This paper will illustrate the exciting questions arising from such a venture and therefore the challenge to incorporate a variety of issues into a legal order. The Paper is addressed to lawyers who need not necessarily be experts in space law, and also to space experts who have no legal background. It demonstrates the three layers of the ISS regime—from the “Intergovernmental Agreement” (IGA) as a “frame” with pillars and boundaries, over the “Memoranda of Understanding” (MOU) which rules in a more specific way, to the so-called “Implementing Arrangements” regulating the overall and single aspects of ISS in detail.The paper underlines questions of applicable jurisdiction, utilization rights and the rights on intellectual property onboard of the ISS. Furthermore the problem of liability in space flight is highlighted, also with a view to the different aspects of the liability issue, for example (internal) liability caused by programme delays (e.g. US Space Shuttle delays).In conclusion, the paper illustrates the situation of astronauts by the “Code of Conduct for the International Space Station Crew” and provides an example for the actual ISS Programme—an international cooperation in a highly demanding environment which will be a basis for future space ventures in many ways.     

Accomplishments in bioastronautics research aboard International Space Station

The tenth long-duration expedition crew is currently in residence aboard International Space Station (ISS), continuing a permanent human presence in space that began in October 2000. During that time, expedition crews have been operators and subjects for 18 Human Life Sciences investigations, to gain a better understanding of the effects of long-duration space flight on the crewmembers and of the environment in which they live. Investigations have been conducted to study: the radiation environment in the station as well as during extravehicular activity (EVA); bone demineralization and muscle deconditioning; changes in neuromuscular reflexes; muscle forces and postflight mobility; causes and possible treatment of postflight orthostatic intolerance; risk of developing kidney stones; changes in pulmonary function caused by long-duration flight as well as EVA; crew and crew–ground interactions; changes in immune function, and evaluation of imaging techniques. The experiment mix has included some conducted in flight aboard ISS as well as several which collected data only pre- and postflight. The conduct of these investigations has been facilitated by the Human Research Facility (HRF). HRF Rack 1 became the first research rack on ISS when it was installed in the US laboratory module Destiny in March 2001. The rack provides a core set of experiment hardware to support investigations, as well as power, data and commanding capability, and stowage. The second HRF rack, to complement the first with additional hardware and stowage capability, will be launched once Shuttle flights resume. Future years will see additional capability to conduct human research on ISS as International Partner modules and facility racks are added to ISS. Crew availability, both as a subject count and time, will remain a major challenge to maximizing the science return from the bioastronautics research program.     

Research priorities and plans for the International Space Station-results of the 'REMAP' Task Force

Recent events in the International Space Station (ISS) Program have resulted in the necessity to re-examine the research priorities and research plans for future years. Due to both technical and fiscal resource constraints expected on the International Space Station, it is imperative that research priorities be carefully reviewed and clearly articulated. In consultation with OSTP and the Office of Management and budget (OMB), NASA's Office of Biological and Physical Research (OBPR) assembled an ad-hoc external advisory committee, the Biological and Physical Research Maximization and Prioritization (REMAP) Task Force. This paper describes the outcome of the Task Force and how it is being used to define a roadmap for near and long-term Biological and Physical Research objectives that supports NASA's Vision and Mission. Additionally, the paper discusses further prioritizations that were necessitated by budget and ISS resource constraints in order to maximize utilization of the International Space Station. Finally, a process has been developed to integrate the requirements for this prioritized research with other agency requirements to develop an integrated ISS assembly and utilization plan that maximizes scientific output.     

Outlook of possible European contributions to future exploration scenarios and architectures

Building upon the important experience acquired with the development of the International Space Station, the major spacefaring countries are working within the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) at the definition of a coordinated framework for expanding the human presence beyond the Low Earth Orbit, the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). The GER defines a long-range strategy for global exploration and include three major elements.

• •Common goals of ISECG participating agencies for space exploration.
• •Notional mission scenarios which are technically feasible and programmatically implementable. Two mission scenarios were defined in the 1st iteration of the GER: the “Asteroid Next” and the “Moon Next” mission scenarios.
• •Identification of near-term opportunities for coordination and cooperation related to e.g. the development of technologies, the implementation of robotic missions to destination of interest for closing strategic knowledge gaps which need to be addressed prior to human missions as well as the utilization of ISS for demonstration of exploration enabling capabilities.

In 2009 two studies have been awarded by ESA to Industrial Teams led by Thales Alenia Space—Italy and by Astrium—Germany to define, analyze and assess optional European scenarios for future human spaceflight and exploration activities, and to derive the required capabilities for the investigated timeframe until the year 2033. Work on the European scenarios has been aligned with and informed by the international work on the GER.A conceptual design of different Building Block Elements, representing critical contributions to international Design Reference Missions (DRM's) included in the ISECG GER, has been performed and analyzed with respect to programmatic risks, budgets and required technologies. Key driving requirements for the analyzed Building Block elements have been derived from the international DRM's included in the GER.The interim outcomes of the human exploration scenario study will be presented, identifying opportunities for European Contributions to an international exploration undertaking.     

Dextre: Improving maintenance operations on the International Space Station

The Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM), known as “Dextre”, is currently slated to launch in February 2008 for deployment on the International Space Station (ISS) as the final component of Canada's Mobile Servicing System (MSS). Dextre's primary role on the Space Station is to perform repair and replacement (R&R) maintenance tasks on robotically compatible hardware such as Orbital Replaceable Units (ORUs), thereby eventually easing the burden on the ISS crew.This burden on the on-orbit crew translates practically into crew time being a limited resource on the ISS, and as such, finding ways to assist the crew in performing their tasks or offloading the crew completely when appropriate is a bonus to the ISS program. This is already accomplished very effectively by commanding as many non-critical robotics tasks as possible, such as powering up and free-space maneuvering of the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), known as “Canadarm2”, from the Ground.Thus, beyond its primary role, and based on an increasing clarity regarding the challenges of external maintenance on the ISS, Dextre is being considered for use in a number of ways with the objective of improving ISS operations while reducing and optimizing the use of crew time through the use of ground control for various tasks, pre-positioning hardware, acting as a temporary storage platform to break an Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA) day into manageable timelines, and extending the physical reach and range of the Canadarm2.This paper discusses the planned activities and operations for Dextre an rationale for how these will help optimize the use of crew resources on the ISS.     

Analytical and semi-analytical inverse kinematics of SSRMS-type manipulators with single joint locked failure

Redundant space manipulators, including Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM) and European Robotic Arm (ERA), have been playing important roles in the construction and maintenance of International Space Station (ISS). They all have 7 revolute joints arranged in similar configurations, and are referred to as SSRMS-type manipulators.     

Space station MMOD shielding

This paper describes the International Space Station (ISS) micro-meteoroid orbital debris (MMOD) impact shielding including the requirements for protection as well as technical approaches to meeting the requirements. Current activities in providing MMOD protection for ISS are described, including efforts to augment MMOD protection by adding shields on-orbit. Another activity is to observe MMOD impact damage on ISS elements and returned hardware, and to compare the observed damage with predicted damage using Bumper code risk assessment software. A conclusion of this paper is that ISS will be protected adequately from MMOD impact after completing augmentation of ISS shielding for service module, and after improving MMOD protection for Soyuz and Progress vehicles. Another conclusion is that impact damage observed to the ISS mini-pressurized logistics module matches the distribution of impacts predicted by Bumper code.     

Open for business: a new approach to commercialisation of the International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) is the result of collaboration between 15 countries [Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA) between the Governments of Canada, the United States of America, Japan, Russia and ESA member States, concerning co-operation on the civil International Space Station, 1998]. Originally planned as a scientific facility, a shift in policy of the partners has recently occurred towards commercialisation of the Station. This article is a response to this policy shift. Based on a report prepared by a Master of Space Studies class at ISU, it set outs to identify the major constraints in which the potential commercial user must operate and proposes solutions for both commercial user and the partner space agencies to facilitate this commercialisation process. At a time when spacefaring nations face reduced fiscal resources and increasing pressure from their constituencies to justify the huge costs of the ISS, commercialising utilisation seems a logical solution. Clearly, successful commercialisation can help recover some of the development and operating costs of the ISS. The structure of the article is divided into two main parts. The first part proposes new solutions to existing constraint to ISS commercialisation in areas of policy, law, technology and business. Its conclusions are integrated and unified into A New Approach towards ISS commercialisation. This approach is then applied in part two to two case studies: the International Space Satellite Servicing Station (I4S) and protein crystallisation. The article then concludes with a recommended approach to the future of ISS commercialisation.     

Safety implications of unscheduled situations in the operation of tethered satellite systems from the international space station

Space based experiments involving the use of tethers were examined with a view to identifying the implications of unscheduled events such as tether severance and interference between the tether and other hardware. It is the authors opinion that these type of events, which have important consequences for the operation of tethers in space, have received insufficient consideration in the extensive literature on the subject. In particular, the investigation of the interference event appears to be completely new. The examination focussed on tether experiments planned for the forthcoming International Space Station (ISS). Results were obtained through the use of a highspeed, non-linear, computer simulation model specifically designed for use with tethered satellite systems. Simulations showed that both severance and interference were possible during retrieval of the tether, particularly if ‘skip-rope’ motion is initiated. The motion following each of these incidents is predicted and shows that these unscheduled events are potentially very hazardous for the ISS. While the results of these simulations are not directly applicable to specific operations on the ISS, they fulfill the primary purpose of this paper which is the demonstration of this new technology.     

Integration of multiple research disciplines on the International Space Station.

The International Space Station will provide an extremely high-quality, long-duration microgravity environment for the conduct of research. In addition, the ISS offers a platform for performing observations of Earth and Space from a high-inclination orbit, outside of the Earth's atmosphere. This unique environment and observational capability offers the opportunity for advancement in a diverse set of research fields. Many of these disciplines do not relate to one another, and present widely differing approaches to study, as well as different resource and operational requirements. Significant challenges exist to ensure the highest quality research return for each investigation. Requirements from different investigations must be identified, clarified, integrated and communicated to ISS personnel in a consistent manner. Resources such as power, crew time, etc. must be apportioned to allow the conduct of each investigation. Decisions affecting research must be made at the strategic level as well as at a very detailed execution level. The timing of the decisions can range from years before an investigation to real-time operations. The international nature of the Space Station program adds to the complexity. Each participating country must be assured that their interests are represented during the entire planning and operations process. A process for making decisions regarding research planning, operations, and real-time replanning is discussed. This process ensures adequate representation of all research investigators. It provides a means for timely decisions, and it includes a means to ensure that all ISS International Partners have their programmatic interests represented.     

Brazilian participation in the International Space Station (ISS) program: commitment or bargain struck?

The invitation to Brazil to join the International Space Station (ISS) program illustrates the way that foreign-policy makers in the USA favor short-term decisions over long-term commitments, while, in accepting the invitation, Brazil was also promoting other objectives. In taking the initiative to invite Brazil, President Clinton provided a unique opportunity to a middle-to-low-ranking spacefaring developing country to join the program as part of NASA's quota for the ISS. However, this action was the result of exchanges and bargains between the two countries, involving domestic and international interests on both sides—not all directly related to ISS activities—targeted at security and industrialization issues. These included the international non-proliferation regime, the commercialization of space systems and facilities (particularly Brazil's Alcantara Launch Center) and intellectual property.     

Technical, organizational and political dynamics of the International Space Station program

This paper analyzes the dynamics of cooperation of the International Space Station (ISS) program from its inception in 1981 to the final Framework Agreements for cooperation concluded in 1998. These dynamics include technical and organizational arrangements, and policy preferences. Dynamics related to technical arrangements deal with technological and scientific resources, the former governed through mechanisms for control of technology transfer, the latter regulated through intellectual property rights provisions. The dynamics linked to organizational arrangements concern authority patterns—characterized by national and international responses—and bilateral and multilaterial decision-making patterns. The dynamics of policy preferences encompass functional and symbolic dimensions. Functional issues are structured through legal and political regimes that govern the ISS program. The symbolic dimension, which includes prestige, legitimacy, influence and international accountability, frames the nature of the cooperation realized for the ISS program. ISS cooperation has evolved through three stages: (1) coordination, where collaboration is engendered through institutional (International Coordinating Working Group) and ad hoc cooperative relationships (groups of scientists and engineers sharing information); (2) augmentation, which equates with technological enhancements of a national project that involve primarily bilateral arrangements; (3) interdependence, which deals with cooperation in enabling and critical path technologies that are arranged both bilaterally and multilaterally.     

Canada and the International Space Station program: overview and status

The twelve months since IAF 2000 have been perhaps the most exciting, challenging and rewarding months for Canada since the beginning of our participation in the International Space Station program in 1984. The highlight was the successful launch, on-orbit check out, and the first operational use of Canadarm2, the Space Station Remote Manipulator System, between April and July 2001. The anomalies encountered and the solutions found to achieve this success are described in the paper. The paper describes, also, the substantial progress that has been made, during the twelve months since IAF 2000, by Canada as it continues to complete work on all flight-elements of its contribution to the International Space Station and as we transition into real-time Space Station operations support and Canadian utilization. Canada's contribution to the International Space Station is the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), the external robotic system that is key to the successful assembly of the Space Station, the maintenance of its external systems, astronaut EVA support, and the servicing of external science payloads. The MSS ground segment that supports MSS operations, training, sustaining engineering, and logistics activities is reaching maturity. The MSS Engineering Support Center and the MSS Sustaining Engineering Facility are providing real-time support for on-orbit operations, and a Canadian Payloads Telescience Operations Center is now in place. Mission Controllers, astronauts and cosmonauts from all Space Station Partners continue to receive training at the Canadian Space Agency. The Remote Multi Purpose Room, one element of the MSS Operations Complex, will be ready to assume backroom support in 2002. Canada has completed work on identifying its Space Station utilization activities for the period 2000 through 2004. Also during the past twelve months the CSA drafted and is proceeding with the approval of a Canadian Space Station Commercialization Policy. Canadian astronauts have now participated in three ISS assembly missions--Julie Payette on STS-96, Marc Garneau on STS-97, and Chris Hadfield on STS-100 in April 2001 during which he performed Canada's first EVA and the successful installation of the Space Station Remote Manipulator System.     

Training astronauts using three-dimensional visualisations of the International Space Station

Recent advances in personal computer technology have led to the development of relatively low-cost software to generate high-resolution three-dimensional images. The capability both to rotate and zoom in on these images superposed on appropriate background images enables high-quality movies to be created. These developments have been used to produce realistic simulations of the International Space Station on CD-ROM. This product is described and its potentialities demonstrated. With successive launches, the ISS is gradually built up, and visualised over a rotating Earth against the star background. It is anticipated that this product's capability will be useful when training astronauts to carry out EVAs around the ISS. Simulations inside the ISS are also very realistic. These should prove invaluable when familiarising the ISS crew with their future workplace and home. Operating procedures can be taught and perfected. "What if" scenario models can be explored and this facility should be useful when training the crew to deal with emergency situations which might arise. This CD-ROM product will also be used to make the general public more aware of, and hence enthusiastic about, the International Space Station programme.     

What role for Europe within a future global space exploration approach?

Europe is present in robotic exploration though the European Space Agency?s mandatory space science program and the optional Aurora program. In addition some member states are also involved in projects of non-European space faring countries through bilateral co-operations. Europe is also present in human exploration through the ISS utilization program. ESA and some of its member states participate in the activities of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), a club of 14 space agencies working for the elaboration of a global exploration roadmap. Finally, ESA and the European Union have initiated a political approach with the setting up of an international forum so as to elaborate a commonly agreed vision on space exploration at political level.     

Commercializing the International Space Station: current US thinking

This article provides an overview of NASA's plans to encourage commercial use of the International Space Station (ISS). It examines the reasons driving such commercialization and highlights those private companies currently most interested in undertaking profit-making operations on the station, as well as discussing those activities most likely to be seen as commercial possibilities. The steps NASA is taking to stimulate private interest are enumerated. Various unresolved issues are raised, such as the legal issues associated with commercial research, charging policy for in-orbit operations and ‘metering’ of in-orbit resources. It is noted that the international dimension of the ISS has thus far received little consideration in the USA.