The ISMA proposal — time for a reappraisal?

The proposal for an International Satellite Monitoring Agency (ISMA) was made by France in 1978. This article looks at the arguments raised against developing an ISMA and reassesses the proposal in the light of current and anticipated developments in the field of verification, and new national space programmes.     

Scientists and arms control in outer space

Scientists have a special responsibility in helping to further the goal of arms control in outer space. Allan Din argues that it is incumbent upon them to study the development of weapons and the arms race, influence policy making at the national and international levels, and publicize the necessity of arms control. The author believes that a treaty controlling use of anti-satellite weapons is urgently required, while a long-term goal must be the formation of an international satellite monitoring agency to regulate use of intelligence-gathering indirect weapons.     

The environmental dimension of space arms control

Current debates on the prevention of an arms race in outer space are dominated by the traditional perspective of international strategic balance. This article addresses the issue through the often-neglected lens of environmental protection, reviewing a number of environmental instruments as they relate to outer space. It argues that environmental protection, as a non-traditional element, is an instrumental impetus for arms control. The current regime leaves the door open for states to develop conventional orbital weapons and ground-based anti-satellite weapons (ASATs), which would have a significant adverse impact on the space environment. Thus the law of environmental protection is deficient in effectively protecting the space environment from pollution resulting from military activities. It is further argued that the space arms control regime should be strengthened for humanity's common interest in a sustainable space environment. Preferably an international treaty should be concluded to prohibit testing, deployment and use of space-based weapons and ASATs. These substantive obligations also conform to the requirements of safeguarding international peace and security, and the security interests of spacefaring countries.     

Arms control and conflict observation satellites

Dr Jasani argues the urgent case for establishing an international satellite monitoring agency, with an arms control and conflict observation satellite (ACCOS). He gives examples of recent technology advances and cites the imminent major development of space weapons by the USA and the USSR as a pressing reason for setting up a verification and crisis control mechanism. Both Europe and the non-aligned nations are in a position to participate in orbiting an ACCOS.     

No deal in space: A bargaining model analysis of U.S. resistance to space arms control

Space systems are essential to the global economy and security. The possibility of disruptions arising from competition between the United States and China through the testing and deployment of weapons in space has led to concerns over an incipient space arms race that would threaten satellites, leading to international calls for a space arms control treaty. The paper presents a rationalist theory analysis on the lack of progress in establishing such a treaty, identifying the United States' position of primacy in the global order and its preeminence in space as a primary cause.     

Paxsat and progress in arms control : Canadian research focuses on remote sensing applications

Verification of arms control treaties is essential to provide adequate international confidence in treaty compliance. This Viewpoint underlines the responsibility of non-superpower countries to become more closely involved in space surveillance of treaties to which they are parties. In Canada, Paxsat research has focused on two potential applications of space-based remote sensing to multi-lateral arms control verification. The necessary technology is readily available in non-superpower countries for the Paxsat concept to be put into operation.     

美国导弹防御系统发展及对国际军控影响研究

大力推进导弹防御系统(MD)的研制和部署是美谋求绝对优势的重要举措。系统分析了美国导弹防御系统(BMDS)发展的基本态势和未来走向,以及其对国际军备控制的影响。     

Consideration of space activities by the UN general assembly

The thirty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly affirmed ‘that complete and general disarmament warrants that outer space should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and that it shall not become an arena for an arms race’.This text appears in the first of two important resolutions concerning outer space adopted by the General Assembly during its last session. Also in the first resolution, entitled ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ (A/39/59 of 12 December 1984), the Assembly called upon all states, particularly those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the objective of the peaceful uses of outer space and to take immediate measures to prevent an arms race in outer space in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international cooperation and understanding.     

The USA and arms control in space: An IR analysis

After years of international stalemate talks on space arms control were finally initiated in Geneva in 2009. The position of the new US administration, however, is still waiting to be defined. This article assesses the advantages and disadvantages of different arms control proposals by looking at them from the perspectives of interdependence theory, neoliberal institutionalism and neo-realism, respectively. They all come to similar conclusions as far as conventional military power and security are concerned: any formal or informal ban on debris-producing activities in space would be highly advantageous to the USA and its allies. When the analysis also takes into account US missile defense policy, however, a neo-realist perspective shows rather mixed results.     

The use of remote sensing satellites for verification in international law

This paper examines the use of remote sensing satellites for verification in public international law. Verification always depends on the specific agreement or mission to be verified. There are no general framework rules: the means of verification and the verifying authorities vary from agreement to agreement and from mission to mission. Rapid technological development and the intensifying international cooperation have led to an increasing number of international verification missions. Whereas, in the past, verification was at the heart of intelligence and national services, the commercialization of the remote sensing industry and the information revolution have supported the creation of joint initiatives in this field. Traditionally, verification is associated with disarmament and arms control treaties, but the paper will underline that this is only one field of application for verification missions. It is important to note that there is no binding international regime specifically addressing such activity. The lack of legal certainty in this field also applies to the use of remotely sensed data as evidence in legal proceedings.     

International cooperation in space for security enhancement

This is the text of a report prepared by the UN Secretary-General, International Cooperation in Space Activities for Enhancing Security in the Post-Cold War Era. It discusses what can be done in this field - both by states acting cooperatively and by the relevant specialized agencies of the UN - in areas such as arms control and conversion of military technologies, commercialization and proliferation, environmental protection and scientific and technical cooperation. Various confidence-building measures to increase global security are discussed and the need to improve developing countries' access to space technology via the establishment of regional education centres and an international space information centre is emphasized.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984 : Part II

This article continues a detailed examination of the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These are importantly concerned with the development of anti-satellite (ASAT) systems and ballistic missile defence (BMD). This part of the article considers the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue - particularly the ASAT testing issue - and Presidential initiatives vis-à-vis the USSR. An epilogue to the original paper considers the diplomatic moves and policy shifts which contributed to the January 1985 US-Soviet meeting and the agreement to begin bilateral negotiations to consider space and nuclear arms.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984: Part I

This article examines the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These relate importantly to the development of anti-satellite satellites (ASATs) and ballistic missile defence systems (BMDs). Part I of the article examines the goal of ‘peaceful uses’ of outer space as elaborated in national policies and in international fora, the debate that has has taken place at the international level over the meaning and definition of peaceful purposes, legal manoeuvres, particularly in the UN, and US responses, and recent Soviet initiatives relating to space militarization. Part II will appear in the next issue, and will consider the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue on these questions and recent Presidential initiatives.     

The SDI agreement between Bonn and Washington: Review of the first four years

This article provides an evaluation of the significance of the memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed by the US and West German governments in March 1986. The author examines the expectations and fears it created in the FRG and compares them with the reality of actual economic benefit and exchange of information derived: the FRG's influence on arms control; and the effects on its standing and trading relations. The author argues that the MOU has had a negligible effect in securing contracts for West German firms and increasing technological cooperation, while damaging the FRG's standing in the arms control arena.     

The growing ‘securitization’ of outer space

Discussions of space security tend to recurrently return to the vexed issue of the ‘militarization’ and ‘weaponization’ of outer space. Debate over whether or not a sustainable definition can be maintained between these two concepts has been a feature of both academic and policy discourses, and has been particularly contentious with regard to new proposals for arms control in outer space. Yet, this paper argues, the militarization/weaponization debate fails to capture to vagaries of contemporary space policy with regard to understandings of ‘security’, and is in this sense an insufficient way of approaching the subject of space security in the first instance. Instead it is now more accurate to say that outer space is becoming ever more ‘securitized’: that is, access to space is now commonly framed as crucial to the military, economic and environmental security of leading states and international organizations.     

A language for arms control in space

Although precise terminology has been invented for all kinds of weapons and battle theories, the language used for arms control remains vague. Precise definitions and demarcations for arms control concepts and regions of outer space can make disarmament discussions more specific and thus more productive. Thie viewpoint puts forward a proposed terminology, in the hope that it will increase the prospects for control of space weapons.     

US national missile defence and international security: blessing or blight?

With the revival of the US national missile defence, there is a danger of jeopardising not only the existing arms control and disarmament process, but also some of the measures that are on the table in the United Nations for negotiations. Examples of these are the prevention of an arms race in outer space and the nuclear fissile materials cut-off agreement. In this paper, the missile defence issues are examined. It is suggested that, if the US builds a missile defence system that is allowed by the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty between the USA and Russia, it could achieve its goal of defending itself against a limited missile attack. With this kind of approach, it may be possible to save many of the long-standing bilateral and multilateral treaties and prevent the beginning of a new and much wider nuclear arms race.     

自由浮动空间双臂机器人抓持内力的优化控制

运用非线性规划方法，提出了一种本体位置、姿态均不受控的自由浮动空间双臂机器人的内力优化与控制策略。首先根据空间双臂机器人及负载的动力学方程，建立了抓持系统合成动力学方程，进而将机器人各手臂关节广义驱动力矩的范数作为目标函数，内力作为优化变量，采用了序列一次规划法来解决空间机器人的动态内力优化计算问题，并对双臂六自由度空间机器人进行了内力优化控制仿真实验，结果表明了该方法的有效性。     

SDI versus arms control

Dr Dahlitz examines three options for the strategic relationship between the superpowers and scrutinizes 12 major arguments that have been advanced in favour of the Strategic Defense Initiative. Arms control is offered as an available option and recommendation are given for methods of outer space arms control. These considerations are brought together in an illustrative draft Treaty on the Prohibition of the Use of Force Concerning Outer Space.     

The Israeli satellite launch: Capabilities, intentions and implications

The launch of the Israeli satellite Ofeq-1 during September 1988 has significant regional and global implications. These include the proliferation of both surveillance satellites and ballistic missiles, the latter having the potential to deliver conventional, chemical and nuclear warheads to areas situated many hundreds of miles away. This paper addresses both the origins of the Israeli booster technology and the many implications of the satellite launch. It then speculates on their political and arms control consequences. It concludes that in light of the parallelism that has evolved between nuclear and chemical weapons and ballistic missiles, there is an increasing need to develop global and, if appropriate, regional and bilateral strategies to limit missile proliferation and bring the issue to the forefront of international political debate.