Experimental study of impact-cratering damage on brittle cylindrical column model as a fundamental component of space architecture

The cylindrical column of brittle material processed from soil and rock is a fundamental component of architectures on the surface of solid bodies in the solar system. One of the most hazardous events for the structure is damaging by hypervelocity impacts by meteoroids and debris. In such a background, cylindrical columns made of plaster of Paris and glass-bead-sintered ceramic were impacted by spherical projectiles of nylon, glass, and steel at velocity of about 1–4.5 km/s. Measured crater radii, depth, and excavated mass expressed by a function of the cylinder radius are similar irrespective of the target material, if those parameters are normalized by appropriate parameters of the crater produced on the flat-surface target. The empirical scaling relations of the normalized crater radii and depth are provided. Using them, crater dimensions and excavated mass of crater on cylindrical surface of any radius can be predicted from the existing knowledge of those for flat surface. Recommendation for the minimum diameter of a cylinder so as to resist against a given impact is provided.     

The extension of the INCL model for simulation of shielding in space

Radiation hazard for space missions is mainly due to cosmic ray protons, helium nuclei and light ions, whose energy spectrum is maximum around 1 GeV per nucleon but remains non-negligible for energies up to 15 GeV per nucleon. Nuclear reactions induced by high energy protons are often described by intranuclear cascade plus evaporation models. The attention is focused here on the Liège Intranuclear Cascade model (INCL), which has been shown to reproduce fairly well a great deal of experimental data for nucleon-induced reactions in the 200 MeV to 2 GeV range, when coupled with the ABLA evaporation-fission code. In order to extend the model to other conditions relevant for space radiation, three improvements of INCL are under development. They are reported on here. First, the reaction model has been extended to nucleon–nucleus reactions at incident energies up to 15 GeV, mainly by the inclusion of additional pion production channels in nucleon–nucleon collisions during the cascade. Second, a coalescence mechanism for the emission of light charged particles has been implemented recently. Finally, the model has been modified in order to accommodate light ions as projectiles. First results are shown and compared with illustrative experimental data. Implications for issues concerning radiation protection in space are discussed.     

Exploring links between crater floor mineralogy and layered lunar crust

Floors of similar sized craters, representing material from similar depth horizons, have been studied to explore their suitability as mineralogy indicators at various depths within the lunar crust. Clementine UV–vis multispectral data was used to generate mineral abundance maps of crater floors and surroundings using a modified version of algorithm given by Pieters et al. (2001) [Pieters, C.M., Head, J.W., Gaddis, L., Jolliff, B. and Duke, M. Rock types of the south pole aitken basin and extent of basaltic volcanism, JGR (106) E11, 28001–28022, 2001.]. Substantial processing of the crater floor material due to variety of geological processes is evident in the generated maps, making straight forward interpretations difficult. However, systematic compositional trends in fresh craters on the floors of target craters seem to indicate the feasibility of such an effort.     

Laboratory investigations of the survivability of bacteria in hypervelocity impacts.

It is now well established that material naturally moves around the Solar System, even from planetary surface to planetary surface. Accordingly, the idea that life is distributed throughout space and did not necessarily originate on the Earth but migrated here from elsewhere (Panspermia) is increasingly deemed worthy of consideration. If life arrived at the Earth from space, its relative speed will typically be of order many km s-1, and the resulting collision with the Earth and its atmosphere will be in the hypervelocity regime. A mechanism for the bacteria to survive such an impact is required. Therefore a programme of hypervelocity impacts in the laboratory at (4.5 +/- 0.6) km s-1 was carried out using bacteria (Rhodococcus) laden projectiles. After impacts on a variety of target materials (rock, glass and metal) attempts were made to culture Rhodococcus from the surface of the resulting craters and also from the target material ejected during crater formation. Control shots with clean projectiles yielded no evidence for Rhodococcus growth from any crater surface or ejecta. When projectiles doped with Rhodococcus were used no impact crater surface yielded colonies of Rhodococcus. However, for four shots of bacteria into rock (two on chalk and two on granite) the ejecta was afterwards found to give colonies of Rhodococcus. This was not true for shots onto glass. In addition, shots into aerogel (density 96 kg m-3) were also carried out (two with clean projectiles and two with projectiles with Rhodococcus). This crudely simulated aero-capture in a planetary atmosphere. No evidence for Rhodococcus growth was found from the projectiles captured in the aerogel from any of the four shots.     

The first new application of the Mathematical Theory of Stochastic Processes to lunar and planetary science: Topography-Profile Diagrams of Mars

The Mathematical Statistics Theory (MST) and the Mathematical Theory of Stochastic Processes (MTSP) are different branches of the more general Mathematical Probability Theory (MPT) that can be used to investigate physical processes through mathematics. Each model of a stochastic process, according to MTSP, can provide one or more interpretations in the MST domain. A large body of work on impact crater statistics according to MST exists, showing cumulative crater frequency (N km⁻²) as a function of age (years) for some particular crater diameter. However, this is only one possible representation in the MST domain of the bombardment of the planetary surface modeled as a stochastic process according to MTSP. The idea that other representations are possible in the MST domain of the same stochastic process from MTSP has been recently presented. The importance of the approach is that each such mathematical-based interpretation can provide a large amount of new information. Coupled with MOLA data, Topography-Profile Diagrams (TPD) are one of the many examples that can provide a large amount of new information regarding the history of Mars. TPD consists of: (1) Topography-Profile Curve (TPC), which is a representation of the planet’s topography, (2) Density-of-Craters Curve (DCC), which represents density of craters, (3) Filtered-DCC (FDCC), which represents DCC filtered by a low-pass filter, included with the purpose of reducing the noise, and (4) Level-of-Substance-Over-Time Curve (LSOTC), which represents interpretation of the influence on the distribution of craters shown by FDCC. TPC uniquely corresponds to the computation of TPD, whereas DCC depends on algorithms for computing the elevation of each crater according to the topography, center coordinates, and radius of impact crater, and FDCC relies on the architecture of the custom designed low-pass filter for filtering DCC. However, all variations of DCC and FDCC, which includes the various impact crater data sets, showed a correlation among the density of craters and elevation over 70–80% of the planet surface. Additionally, if we assume that the ocean primarily caused the noted correlation, LSOTC offers a mathematical approach for estimating topographic change of the ocean’s extent over time. Accordingly, TPD is the first new practical application of MTSP to lunar and planetary sciences, showing correlation of topography to a physical process.     

Integrated method for crater detection from topography and optical images and the new PH9224GT catalogue of Phobos impact craters

In a large majority of lunar and planetary surface images, impact craters are the most abundant geological features. Therefore, it is not surprising that crater detection algorithms (CDAs) are one of the most studied subjects of image processing and analysis in lunar and planetary science. In this work we are proposing an Integrated CDA, consisting of: (1) utilization of DEM (digital elevation map)-based CDA; (2) utilization of an optical-based CDA; (3) re-projection of used datasets and crater coordinates from normal to rotated view and back; (4) correction of the brightness and contrast of a used optical image; and (5) tile generation for the optical-based CDA and an assembling of results with an elimination of multiple detections, in combination with a pyramid approach down to the resolution of the available DEM image; and (6) a final integration of the results of DEM-based and optical-based CDAs, including a removal of duplicates. The proposed CDA is applied to one specific asteroid-like body, the small Martian moon Phobos. The experimental evaluation of the proposed CDA is done by a manual verification of crater-candidates and a search for uncatalogued craters. The evaluation has shown that the proposed CDA was used successfully for cataloging Phobos craters. The major result of this paper is the PH9224GT – currently the most complete global catalogue of the 9224 Phobos craters. The possible applications of the new catalogue are: (1) age estimations for any selected location; and (2) comparison/evaluation of the different chronology and production functions for Phobos. This confirms the practical applicability of the new Integrated CDA – an additional result of this paper, which can be used in order to considerably extend the current crater catalogues.     

Cross testing of ionosphere models IRI-2001 and IRI-2007, data from satellite altimeters (Topex/Poseidon and Jason-1) and global ionosphere maps

In this study, we use a great body of statistical data covering the entire 23rd solar cycle to cross test data of satellite altimeters, Global Ionosphere Maps and the International Reference Ionosphere models, IRI-2001 and IRI-2007. It is revealed that experimental TEC values of the satellite altimeters regularly exceed the model ones by ∼3 TECU (1 TECU = 10¹⁶ m⁻²). The best possible value of difference between TECs obtained from altimeter and GIM-map data significantly differs for different laboratories: the maximum for CODG data falls on 2.5 TECU, ESAG – 3 TECU, JPLG – 0 TECU, UPCG – 2 TECU. The dependence of experimental and model data root-mean-square deviation on the F10.7 index is shown to be nearly linear. IRI-2001 and IRI-2007 relative errors are characterized by considerable 11-year and annual variations. Given the geomagnetic planetary index K_p under 7, IRI-2001 and IRI-2007 reproduce TEC in the ionosphere with an accuracy of ∼30% relative to measurement data from satellite altimeters. The amplitude of absolute error variations resulting from the difference in ionization enhancement between the model and the real ionosphere during the morning solar terminator transit is ∼5 TECU.     

The electron formations under the radiation belts at L-shells 1.2–1.9

We continue to analyze the distribution of electron fluxes with energy 30–500 keV under the radiation belts at low and middle latitudes (L = 1.2–1.9) using experimental data obtained onboard ACTIVE satellite. Special attention is given to altitudinal distribution of electron fluxes and detailed analysis of these electron formations. We observe three main regions of electron flux registration that seem to exist constantly under the radiation belts. These regions are: magneto-conjugated to SAA region (in the north hemisphere), local zone of low intense electron flux accumulation to the west of SAA, and extensive region in the north hemisphere to the east. The analysis of experimental data obtained from ACTIVE satellite (orbit height 500–2500 km) shows that electron fluxes are registered in the wide altitude range up to 1100 km. It is shown that these formations have complicated initial structure with two regions of flux maximums: at L = 1.3 and L = 1.6–1.8. We compare particle data with low frequency (LF) data (ARIEL-4 satellite) and high frequency (HF) data (CORONAS-I satellite). Also we discuss the possible mechanisms of the appearance of these formations under the radiation belts.     

基于深度学习的大型陨石坑识别方法研究

陨石坑是天体表面最为显著的地形特征，传统陨石坑识别方法主要是对小型陨石坑正负样本的二分类问题研究，且效率和精度均不高。以星体宏观视角下的大型陨石坑作为研究对象，结合图像处理和神经网络等方面的知识，创建了来自不同数据源的陨石坑样本数据库，研究了数据源对网络模型泛化能力的影响，提出了一种效率更高的陨石坑多分类识别方法。在非极大值抑制（NMS）算法基础上，提出了一种精度更高的陨石坑检测算法。经过参数优化和实验验证，构建的基于深度学习的多尺度多分类陨石坑自动识别网络框架取得了较高的准确率，在同源验证集上识别率可达0.985，在异源验证集上识别率可达0.863，并且有效改善了目标检测时检测框冗余及误检测的问题。      

Hybrid method for crater detection based on topography reconstruction from optical images and the new LU78287GT catalogue of Lunar impact craters

Impact craters are ubiquitous and well-studied structures of high geological relevance on the surfaces of the Earth’s Moon, the terrestrial planets, the asteroids and the satellites of the outer planets. Therefore, it is not surprising that crater detection algorithms (CDAs) are one of the most studied subjects of image processing and analysis in lunar and planetary science. In this paper we are proposing a Hybrid CDA: a modified DEM (digital elevation map) reconstruction method used as a step in an existing CDA based on Hough transform. The new Hybrid CDA consists of: (1) reconstruction of topography from optical images using a shape from shading approach; (2) utilization of the DEM-based CDA; (3) correction of brightness and contrast of optical images used in order to be more suitable for evaluation of detections. An additional result of this work is a new method for evaluation of topography reconstruction algorithms, using a DEM-based CDA and an earlier approach for evaluation of CDAs. The new Hybrid CDA was tested using two Chandrayaan-1 Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M³) images and two excerpts of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Wide Angle Camera (WAC) global optical image mosaic. As a result, the number of craters inside these four regions increased considerably from 1754 (as available in the previous LU60645GT catalogue) to 19 396 craters (as available in the resulting new LU78287GT catalogue). This confirmed the practical applicability of the new Hybrid CDA, which can be used in order to considerably extend current crater catalogues.     

Penetration testing for the Optical Probe for Regolith Analysis (OPRA)

The Optical Probe for Regolith Analysis (OPRA) is a spike-shaped subsurface analytical probe that will be delivered to a planet, asteroid, or cometary body by a lander and/or rover. OPRA will be pushed down into the subsurface to record near infrared spectra as a function of depth down to maximum of 50 cm. Therefore, knowledge of the required penetration force to specific depths can be helpful in estimating the length of the probe. Test probes covering the anticipated diameter (2.5, 1.9, 1.2 and 0.9 cm diameter) and tip angle (T.A. = 30°, 60°, 90° and 120°) of OPRA were inserted mechanically into dry playground sand. The results showed that tip angle does not have a major effect, while probe diameter and density of the regolith are the most important parameters. Increasing probe diameter from 0.9 to 1.9 cm (i.e. a factor of 2) leads to an increase in penetration force from 200 to 1000 N (i.e. a factor of 5) at 20 cm depth. An increase in bulk density (B.D.) from 1550 to 1700 kg m⁻³ leads to an increase in penetration force from 10 to 200 N at 20 cm depth. Bearing capacity theory was used to explain the downward movement of the penetrometer through regolith and showed good agreement with the experimental results. This model was then used to take into account the effect of gravity on other planetary bodies. We observed a good agreement between the theoretical model and results from penetration testings on the Moon by the Apollo missions. Since the maximum allowed force for penetration is the weight of the lander/rover on their targeted planetary surface, our results put a strong constraint on the maximum reachable depth without endangering the whole mission.     

Is there an abnormal enhancement of atmospheric aerosol before the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake?

There are extensive reports of ionospheric disturbances before the great 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, which are possibly explained by seismogenic electric field hypotheses linked with the aerosols injected in atmosphere. This paper attempts to investigate the possible change of atmospheric aerosol optical depth (AOD) associated with this earthquake by using MODIS data from both Terra and Aqua satellites. The result shows a clear enhancement of AOD along the Longmenshan faults 7 days before the quake, which is 1 day and 4 days earlier than the reported negative and positive ionospheric disturbances, respectively, and is 1 day earlier than or quasi-synchronism with other reported atmospheric anomalies including air temperature, outgoing longwave radiation and relative humidity. Particularly, the spatial distribution of AOD enhancement is very local and it is correlated well with the active faults and surface ruptures. We suggest that this unique enhancement could be associated with the Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere coupling process during the preparation of the Wenchuan earthquake.     

Depth dose measurements with the Liulin-5 experiment inside the spherical phantom of the MATROSHKA-R project onboard the International Space Station

The Liulin-5 experiment is a part of the international project MATROSHKA-R on the Russian segment of the ISS, which uses a tissue-equivalent spherical phantom equipped with a set of radiation detectors. The objective of the MATROSHKA-R project is to provide depth dose distribution of the radiation field inside the sphere in order to get more information on the distribution of dose in a human body. Liulin-5 is a charged particle telescope using three silicon detectors. It measures time resolved energy deposition spectra, linear energy transfer (LET) spectra, particle flux, and absorbed doses of electrons, protons and heavy ions, simultaneously at three depths along the radius of the phantom. Measurements during the minimum of the solar activity in cycle 23 show that the average absorbed daily doses at 40 mm depth in the phantom are between 180 μGy/day and 220 μGy/day. The absorbed doses at 165 mm depth in the phantom decrease by a factor of 1.6–1.8 compared to the doses at 40 mm depth due to the self-shielding of the phantom from trapped protons. The average dose equivalent at 40 mm depth is 590 ± 32 μSV/day and the galactic cosmic rays (GCR) contribute at least 70% of the total dose equivalent at that depth. Shown is that due to the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) trapped protons asymmetry and the direction of Liulin-5 lowest shielding zone the dose rates on ascending and descending nodes in SAA are different. The data obtained are compared to data from other radiation detectors on ISS.     

Application of hydrocode modelling to the study of hypervelocity impact crater morphology

In order to obtain a better understanding and model of the natural and artificial particulate environment from measurements of impact damage features on returned spacecraft materials, it is necessary to be able to determine how the size and shape of an impact feature are related to the parameters of the impacting particle. The AUTODYN-3D hydrocode has been used to study the effects of projectile density, velocity and impact angle on the depth, diameter and ellipticity of the impact craters. The results are used to determine the distributions of crater depth to crater diameter ratios and of crater ellipticities to be expected on an aluminium surface exposed to an isotropic distribution of incident particles of given densities and velocities. Comparison of these calculated distributions with those observed for craters on aluminium clamps on various faces of the Long Duration Exposure Facility shows that particles with a wide range of densities, including significant proportions both greater and smaller than that of aluminium, were responsible for these craters.     

Seasonal patterns of condensation and sublimation cycles in the cryptic and non-cryptic regions of the South Pole

The South Pole of Mars is characterized by an asymmetric residual ice cap composed of water ice and CO₂ ice. On the opposite side of the residual cap, there exists an area called cryptic region which is relatively free of ice during summer time. Many fan-shaped km-scale structures apparently caused by a wind-blown system of dust-laden gas jets occurred dozens degrees of Ls before the complete sublimation of the CO₂ frost layer. We have examined the seasonal cycles of condensation and sublimation in the cryptic and non-cryptic regions by using the topographic data from the MOLA/MGS measurements. Using the MOLA topography data collected over one Martian year (1999–2001), we have studied the temporal elevation change and the seasonal cycle of the carbon dioxide frost on the southern polar caps. We have produced mapping of the seasonal CO₂ frost thickness variation for seven Ls (30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 150°, 180°, 210°, 240°, 270° and 330°). It is found that the time variations of the CO₂ frost thickness in these two regions are quite similar. The greatest thickness of the CO₂ frost layer is about 0.76–0.78 m in both places occurs at Ls = 150°.     

Evaluation of upper body muscle activity during cardiopulmonary resuscitation performance in simulated microgravity

Performance of efficient single-person cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is vital to maintain cardiac and cerebral perfusion during the 2–4 min it takes for deployment of advanced life support during a space mission. The aim of the present study was to investigate potential differences in upper body muscle activity during CPR performance at terrestrial gravity (+1Gz) and in simulated microgravity (μG). Muscle activity of the triceps brachii, erector spinae, rectus abdominis and pectoralis major was measured via superficial electromyography in 20 healthy male volunteers. Four sets of 30 external chest compressions (ECCs) were performed on a mannequin. Microgravity was simulated using a body suspension device and harness; the Evetts–Russomano (ER) method was adopted for CPR performance in simulated microgravity. Heart rate and perceived exertion via Borg scores were also measured. While a significantly lower depth of ECCs was observed in simulated microgravity, compared with +1Gz, it was still within the target range of 40–50 mm. There was a 7.7% decrease of the mean (±SEM) ECC depth from 48 ± 0.3 mm at +1Gz, to 44.3 ± 0.5 mm during microgravity simulation (p < 0.001). No significant difference in number or rate of compressions was found between the two conditions. Heart rate displayed a significantly larger increase during CPR in simulated microgravity than at +1Gz, the former presenting a mean (±SEM) of 23.6 ± 2.91 bpm and the latter, 76.6 ± 3.8 bpm (p < 0.001). Borg scores were 70% higher post-microgravity compressions (17 ± 1) than post +1Gz compressions (10 ± 1) (p < 0.001). Intermuscular comparisons showed the triceps brachii to have significantly lower muscle activity than each of the other three tested muscles, in both +1Gz and microgravity. As shown by greater Borg scores and heart rate increases, CPR performance in simulated microgravity is more fatiguing than at +1Gz. Nevertheless, no significant difference in muscle activity between conditions was found, a result that is favourable for astronauts, given the inevitable muscular and cardiovascular deconditioning that occurs during space travel.     

New evidence of solar variation in temperature proxies from Northern Fennoscandia

A new summer temperature proxy was built for northern Fennoscandia in AD 1000–2004 using parameters of tree growth from a large region, extending from the Swedish Scandes to the Kola Peninsula. It was found that century-scale (55–140 year) cyclicity is present in this series during the entire time interval. This periodicity is highly significant and has a bi-modal structure, i.e. it consists of two oscillation modes, 55–100 year and 100–140 year variations. A comparison of the century-long variation in the northern Fennoscandian temperature proxy with the corresponding variations in Wolf numbers and concentration of cosmogenic ¹⁰Be in glacial ice shows that a probable cause of this periodicity is the modulation of regional climate by the secular solar cycle of Gleissberg. This is in line with the results obtained previously for a more limited part of the region (Finnish Lapland: 68–70° N, 20–30° E). Thus the reality of a link between long-term changes in solar activity and climate in Fennoscandia has been confirmed. Possible mechanisms of solar influence on the lower troposphere are discussed.     

Interseismic slip rate of the Garze–Yushu fault belt in the Tibetan Plateau from C-band InSAR observations between 2003 and 2010

InSAR time series techniques can provide high-spatial resolution deformation fields across an active fault belt, even for zones with heavy vegetation coverage. An interseismic deformation map across the Garze–Yushu fault belt in the Tibetan Plateau, ∼300 km by ∼100 km, is derived from C-band Envisat/ASAR imagery collected between 2003 and 2010. Unlike previous research, we obtain a lookup figure which relates the slip rate with the fault locking depth, the dip angle and the rake angle. The estimated slip rate changes significantly with the locking depth and the rake angle, but relatively little with the dip angle. When considering the focal mechanism solutions of historical earthquake along the Garze–Yushu fault, the interseismic slip rate of the Garze–Yushu fault is close to a value of 6.4 mm/yr, which is between the highest (18.2 mm/yr) and the lowest (3.1 mm/yr) slip rate from GPS estimations, but slightly less than the minimum value (∼ 7 mm/yr) from the geological estimations. The earthquake recurrence interval on the Yushu part of Garze–Yushu fault equals 272 yr, and the April 14, 2010 Mw 6.9 earthquake has not completely released the accumulated strain energy between 1738 and 2010.     

Empirical model of cosmic ray spectrum in energy interval 1 MeV–100 GeV during 11-year solar cycle

The galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are the main ionization source at altitude of ∼3–35 km in the atmosphere. For high latitude anomalous cosmic ray (ACR) component has also a significant influence on the atmospheric ionization. We propose an empirical model for differential spectra D(E) of galactic and anomalous cosmic rays in energy interval 1 MeV–100 GeV during solar cycle. In the model data are used which cover three solar cycles: 20, 22 and 23. The LEAP87, IMAX92, CAPRICE94, AMS98 and BESS experimental spectra for protons and alpha particles are fitted to the proposed empirical model. The modulated GCR differential spectra are compared with force-field approximation to the one-dimensional transport equation and with solutions of two-dimensional cosmic ray transport equation. For experimental spectra, the calculation of the model parameters is performed by Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm, applied to the special case of least squares. Algorithm that combines the rapid local convergence of Newton–Raphson method with globally convergent method for non-linear systems of equations is applied for theoretically obtained differential spectra. The described programmes are realized in algorithmic language C++. The proposed model gives practical possibility for investigation of experimental data from measurements of galactic cosmic rays and their anomalous component.