Modelling of grinding mechanics: A review

Grinding is one of the most widely used material removal methods at the end of many process chains. Grinding force is related to almost all grinding parameters, which has a great influence on material removal rate, dimensional and shape accuracy, surface and subsurface integrity, thermodynamics, dynamics, wheel durability, and machining system deformation. Considering that grinding force is related to almost all grinding parameters, grinding force can be used to detect grinding wheel wear, energy calculation, chatter suppression, force control and grinding process simulation. Accurate prediction of grinding forces is important for optimizing grinding parameters and the structure of grinding machines and fixtures. Although there are substantial research papers on grinding mechanics, a comprehensive review on the modeling of grinding mechanics is still absent from the literature. To fill this gap, this work reviews and introduces theoretical methods and applications of mechanics in grinding from the aspects of modeling principles, limitations and possible future trendencies.     

Development of a new high-shear and low-pressure grinding wheel and its grinding characteristics for Inconel718 alloy

Nickel-based alloy has been widely used due to its outstanding mechanical properties. However, Nickel-based alloy is a typical difficult-to-machine material, which is a great constrain for its application in the manufacturing field. To improve the surface quality of the ground workpiece, a new high-shear and low-pressure grinding wheel, with high ratio of tangential grinding force to normal grinding force, was fabricated for the grinding of selective laser melting (SLM) manufactured Inconel718 alloy. The principle of high-shear and low-pressure grinding process was introduced in detail, which was quite different from the conventional grinding process. The fabrication process of the new grinding wheel was illustrated. A serial of experiments with different processing parameters were carried out to investigate the grinding performance of the developed grinding wheel via analyzing surface roughness and surface morphology of the ground workpiece. The optimal processing parameters of high-shear and low-pressure grinding were obtained. The surface roughness of ground workpiece was reduced to 0.232 μm from the initial value of 0.490 μm under the optimal grinding conditions. It was found that the initial scratches on the ground workpiece were almost completely removed after the observations with the metalloscopy and the field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The capability of the newly developed high-shear and low-pressure grinding wheel was validated.     

Prediction on grinding force during grinding powder metallurgy nickel-based superalloy FGH96 with electroplated CBN abrasive wheel

In this article, a grinding force model, which is on the basis of cutting process of single abrasive grains combined with the method of theoretical derivation and empirical formula by analyzing the formation mechanism of grinding force, was established. Three key factors have been taken into accounts in this model, such as the contact friction force between abrasive grains and materials, the plastic deformation of material in the process of abrasive plowing, and the shear strain effect of material during the process of cutting chips formation. The model was finally validated by the orthogonal grinding experiment of powder metallurgy nickel-based superalloy FGH96 by using the electroplated CBN abrasive wheel. Grinding force values of prediction and experiment were in good consistency. The errors of tangential grinding force and normal grinding force were 9.8% and 13.6%, respectively. The contributions of sliding force, plowing force and chip formation force were also analyzed. In addition, the tangential forces of sliding, plowing and chip formation are 14%, 19% and 11% of the normal forces on average, respectively. The pro-posed grinding force model is not only in favor of optimizing the grinding parameters and improving grinding efficiency, but also contributes to study some other grinding subjects (e.g. abrasive wheel wear, grinding heat, residual stress).     

磨削钛合金的磨削力数学模型

本文以磨削钛合金的粘附现象为基础,分析了磨削力与粘附面积百分率间的关系,并导出了磨削力数学模型。该模型计及由于切削工件材料而产生的力以及由于粘到工作磨粒上的工件材料与工件相互接触而产生的力。试验结果证明该模型对钛合金磨削是适用的。     

Interference and grinding characteristics in ultra-precision grinding of thin-walled complex structural component using a ball-end grinding wheel

As for ultra-precision grinding of difficult-to-process thin-walled complex components with ball-end grinding wheels, interference is easy to occur. According to screw theory and grinding kinematics, a mathematical model is established to investigate the interference and grinding characteristics of the ball-end wheel. The relationship between grinding wheel inclination angle, C axis rotation angle, grinding position angle and grinding wheel wear are analyzed. As the grinding wheel inclination angle increases, the C axis rotatable range decreases and the grinding position angle increases. The grinding position angle and wheel radius wear show a negative correlation with the C axis rotation angle. Therefore, a trajectory planning criteria for increasing grinding speed as much as possible under the premise of avoiding interference is proposed to design the grinding trajectory. Then grinding point distribution on the ball-end wheel is calculated, and the grinding characteristics, grinding speed and maximum undeformed chip thickness, are investigated. Finally, a complex structural component can be ground without interference, and surface roughness and profile accuracy are improved to 40.2 nm and 0.399 μm, compared with 556 nm and 3.427 μm before ultra-precision grinding. The mathematical model can provide theoretical guidance for the analysis of interference and grinding characteristics in complex components grinding to improve its grinding quality.     

氮化硅陶瓷切削仿真与实验

针对金刚石砂轮磨粒尺寸、形状的不规则性和空间位置不确定性的特点,采用球坐标中随机点产生的空间平面切分实体和截角多面体相结合的方法,并考虑氮化硅陶瓷工件的磨削亚表面形貌和裂纹损伤,建立了截角多面体磨粒和含有典型裂纹的工件模型。进行单颗磨粒切削氮化硅陶瓷的有限元仿真和实验,结果表明:磨削加工和数值仿真的磨削力值变化趋势相同,差值小于8%,切削力随砂轮转速增大而减小、随工件速度和切削深度增大而增大,而切削深度对切削力的影响程度最大。     

Diamond wheel grinding characteristics of 3D orthogonal quartz fiber reinforced silica ceramic matrix composite

Fiber-reinforced silica ceramic matrix composites (SiO_2f/SiO₂) have gained extensive attention in recent years for its applications in aeronautics field such as radar radome and window. However, the machining properties and mechanism of the material remain unclear. The features and mechanical properties of the material itself have a significant influence on both its machining characteristics and surface integrity. Thus, a full-factor grinding experiment is conducted using a 3D orthogonal SiO_2f/SiO₂ aiming to obtain its machining characteristics. The effects of grinding parameters and tools on the grinding force, surface roughness, and material damage type are investigated using a dynamometer, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and Acoustic Emission (AE) analysis. The AE frequency band is analyzed, and a semi-analytical force model is established to study the difference between a single grain and wheel grinding. It was found that the changes in surface roughness correlate with the changes in grinding force, with fiber fracture being the main reason behind the increase in grinding force. Finally, the material removal mechanism was studied based on the AE analysis. It was found that the removal mechanism is fiber fracture dominated with matrix crack and debonding, and the primary sources of energy consumption are fiber fracture and friction.     

超声ELID 复合磨削磨削力模型研究

以ELID 电解原理为基础,结合超声振动辅助磨削过程中单颗磨粒的运动学分析,建立了超声 ELID 复合磨削条件下的磨削力数学解析模型,并对模型进行了分析和仿真。对模型的分析表明:超声振动改 变了磨粒的运动轨迹,使同等条件下的未变形切屑厚度减小,砂轮的在线电解修整使磨粒始终处于锋锐状态, 而且影响砂轮的实际切削深度,进而对磨削力产生影响。磨削力随着超声振动频率、振幅、电解电压、脉冲比、 电解液电阻率的增大而减小;随着切削深度、工件速度的增大而增大。     

航空齿轮磨削加工安装偏心误差补偿研究

磨齿加工时齿坯几何中心与回转工作台轴心存在安装偏心误差,降低了磨齿加工精度。以数控成型砂轮磨齿机工作原理为基础,建立偏心误差磨削加工几何模型;提出安装偏心误差补偿法,建立偏心误差补偿数学模型,通过数学模型求出磨削砂轮在X、Y两个方向的进给补偿增量;以YK73125数控成型砂轮磨齿机为例,进行安装偏心误差补偿实验,齿轮的左右齿面单个齿距极限偏差绝对值分别减小了0.9μm和1.6μm,齿距累积总偏差绝对值分别减小了49.6μm和43.3μm。结果表明:安装偏心误差与单个齿距偏差和齿距累积总偏差成正比;采用安装偏心误差补偿进行磨齿加工,有效地减小了单个齿距偏差和齿距累积总偏差,齿轮的精度有所提高。     

Thermomechanical coupling effect on characteristics of oxide film during ultrasonic vibration-assisted ELID grinding ZTA ceramics

Ultrasonic vibration-assisted ELID (UVA-ELID) grinding is utilized as a novel and highly efficient processing method for hard and brittle materials such as ceramics. In this study, the UVA-ELID grinding ZTA ceramics is employed to investigate the influence of thermomechanical loading on the characteristics of oxide film. Based on the fracture mechanics of material, the model of internal stress for oxide film damage is proposed. The thermomechanical loading is composed of mechanical force and the thermal stress generating from grinding temperature. The theoretical model is established for the mechanical force, thermal stress and internal stress respectively. Then the finite element analysis method is used to simulate the theoretical model. The mechanical force and grinding temperature is measured during the actual grinding test. During the grinding process, the effect of grinding wheel speed and grinding depth on the thermomechanical force and the characteristics of oxide film is analyzed. Compared with the conventional ELID (C-ELID) grinding, the mechanical force decreased by 25.6% and 22.4% with the increase of grinding wheel speed and grinding depth respectively, and the grinding temperature declined by 10.7% and 12.8% during the UVA-ELID grinding. The thermal stress in the latter decreased by 16.3% and 20.8% respectively, and internal stress reduced by 12.3% and 15.6%. It was experimentally found that the topographies of oxide layer on the surface of the wheel and the machined surface in the latter was better than that in the former. The results indicate that the action of ultrasonic vibration establish a significant effect on the processing. Subsequently, it should be well considered for future reference when processing the ZTA ceramics.     

旋转条件下SiC 单晶片锯切力建模研究

通过理论分析和实验研究相结合的方法,对工件旋转条件下电镀金刚石线锯切割SiC单晶片锯切力进行了分析.依据磨削和动态切削理论,分析了线锯与工件运动模型、单颗金刚石磨粒的切向和法向锯切力,建立了金刚石线锯锯切力模型;进行了工件旋转条件下SiC单晶切割实验,对理论分析结果进行验证,重点对线锯速率、工件进给速率、工件旋转速率及工件未切割直径等工艺因素对切向锯切力的影响进行分析.结果表明理论分析和实验结果相对误差不大于5.2％,验证了所建模型的正确性,为探索SiC单晶片的切削机理和参数优化提供依据.     

Developing a novel radial ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding device and evaluating its performance in machining PTMCs

Particle-reinforcing titanium matrix composites(PTMCs) exhibit the sharp raising applications in modern industries owing to its extraordinary physical and mechanical properties. However, the poor grindability and unstable grinding processes due to the existence of TiC particles and TiB short fibres inside PTMCs, leading to the sudden grinding burn and low material removal rate.In this work, a novel radial ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding(RUVAG) device with a special cross structure was dev...     

A trajectory planning method on error compensation of residual height for aero-engine blades of robotic belt grinding

While the traditional trajectory planning methods are used in robotic belt grinding of blades with an uneven machining allowance distribution, it is hard to obtain the preferable profile accuracy and surface quality to meet the high-performance requirements of aero-engine. To solve this problem, a novel trajectory planning method is proposed in this paper by considering the developed interpolation algorithm and the machining allowance threshold. The residual height error obtained from grinding e...     

Grain erosion wear properties and grinding performance of porous aggregated cubic boron nitride abrasive wheels

Cubic boron nitride (cBN) superabrasive grinding wheels exhibit unique advantages in the grinding of difficult-to-cut materials with high strength and toughness, such as titanium alloys and superalloys. However, grinding with multilayered metallic cBN superabrasive wheels faces problems in terms of grain wear resistance, the chip storage capability of the working layers and the stability and controllability of the dressing process. Therefore, in this work, novel metallic cBN superabrasive wheels with aggregated cBN (AcBN) grains and open pore structures were fabricated to improve machining efficiency and surface quality. Prior to the grinding trials, the air-borne abrasive blasting process was conducted and the abrasive blasting parameters were optimized in view of wear properties of cBN grains and metallic matrix materials. Subsequently, the comparative experiments were performed and then the variations in grinding force and force ratio, grinding temperature, tool wear morphology and ground surface quality of the multilayered AcBN grinding wheels were investigated during machining Ti–6Al–4V alloys. In consideration of the variations of grain erosion wear volume and material removal rate per unit of pure metallic matrix materials as the abrasive blasting parameters changes, the optimal abrasive blasting parameters were identified as the SiC abrasive mesh size of 60# and the abrasive blasting distance and time of 60 mm and 15 s, respectively. The as-developed AcBN grains exhibited better fracture toughness and impact resistance than monocrystalline cBN (McBN) grains because of the existence of metal-bonded materials amongst multiple cBN particles that decreased crack propagation inside whole grains. The metallic porous AcBN wheels had lower grinding forces and temperature and better ground surface quality than vitrified McBN wheels due to the constant layer-by-layer exposure of cBN particles in the working layer of AcBN wheels.     

Investigation on induction brazing of profiled cBN wheel for grinding of Ti-6Al-4V

Profiled monolayer cBN wheel was induction brazed for grinding of titanium dovetail slot in this study. Aimed at acquiring a uniform temperature distribution along the profiled surface and reducing the thermal deformation of the brazed wheel, a finite element model was established to investigate the temperature uniformity during induction brazing. A suitable induction coil and the related working parameters were designed and chosen based on the simulation results. Ag-Cu-Ti alloy and cBN grains were applied in the induction brazing experiment. The results showed geometric deformation of the brazed wheel was no more than 0.01 mm and chemical reaction layer were found on the brazed joint interface. Further validation tests were carried out by grinding of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Compared to the electroplated wheel, the brazed wheel showed better performance such as low specific grinding energy and good ground quality in grinding of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Abrasion wear was found to be the main failure mode for the induction brazed wheel, while adhesion and grains pull-out were the main failure mode for the electroplated wheel.     

Simulation of multi-axis grinding considering runout based on envelope theory

As one of the most important methods for machining process with high accuracy, ultra-precision grinding is widely used in fields such as aerospace, automotive and mold, etc. Simultaneously, it is common that wheel and spindle axis do not coincide with each other due to wheel settings, machining errors and so on. This could result in the generation of wheel runout, which may reduce the machining surface’s quality. In this paper, combining this phenomenon, an analytic algorithm method for the multi-axis grinding process is introduced according to the envelope theory. After that, the accuracy of this method is verified. Two experiments are carried out on a 5-axis machining center. The artificial runout is set up and calculated utilizing the least square method. Finally, using the presented method, two examples with and without runout are introduced to illustrate the validation of the proposed model. The error due to the runout effect is also analyzed.     

新型刚玉砂轮磨削GH4169镍基高温合金的性能评价研究

镍基高温合金是航空发动机部件的常用材料,其磨削加工存在工具损耗严重、寿命短等难题。针对3种新研制的刚玉砂轮(分别为粒度60#的微晶和单晶混合磨料砂轮、粒度60#的单晶刚玉砂轮,以及粒度70#的单晶刚玉砂轮),开展了GH4169镍基高温合金材料的磨削试验,从磨削力、磨削温度、砂轮磨损以及表面粗糙度等方面对3种砂轮的磨削性能进行了评价。结果表明,3种砂轮磨削GH4169材料在砂轮磨损和表面粗糙度方面未表现出明显差异,而通过对磨削力和磨削温度的综合评价发现粒度60#的单晶刚玉砂轮的磨削性能更优。3种砂轮磨削GH4169材料的磨削比在0.5~3之间。在正常磨削条件下,3种砂轮的磨削表面粗糙度Ra小于0.4μm。同时发现,砂轮磨损(主要包括磨粒的破碎和脱落)是造成磨削表面缺陷形成的重要原因。     

Application of novel force control strategies to enhance robotic abrasive belt grinding quality of aero-engine blades

Robotic belt grinding has emerged as a finishing process in recent years for machining components with high surface finish and flexibility.The surface machining consistency, however,is difficult to be guaranteed in such a process.To overcome this problem, a method of hybrid force-position control combined with PI/PD control is proposed to be applied in robotic abrasive belt grinding of complex geometries.Voltage signals are firstly obtained and transformed to force information with signal conditioning methods.Secondly, zero drift and gravity compensation algorithms are presented to calibrate the F/T transducer which is installed on the robot end-effector.Next, a force control strategy combining hybrid force-position control with PI/PD control is introduced to be employed in robotic abrasive belt grinding operations where the force control law is applied to the Z direction of the tool frame and the positon control law is used in the X direction of the tool frame.Then, the accuracy of the F/T transducer and the robotic force control system is analyzed to ensure the stability and reliability of force control in the robotic grinding process.Finally, two typical cases on robotic belt grinding of a test workpiece and an aero-engine blade are conducted to validate the practicality and effectiveness of the force control technology proposed.     

基于数值模拟的内斜齿轮成形磨削 砂轮修形方法

针对内斜齿轮数控成形磨削中较难解决的磨削干涉问题,研究了内斜齿轮成形磨削的砂轮修形方法.在建立内斜齿轮成形磨削数学模型的基础上,用截圆法得到磨削内斜齿轮时砂轮与齿槽接触点所满足的条件方程组,通过牛顿迭代法解此方程组求出砂轮廓形.用数值法模拟出所求砂轮的实际磨削齿形并与理论渐开线齿形作比较,以检验磨削是否干涉及砂轮半径和安装角的选取是否正确.基于 Visual C++ 6.0 编制内斜齿轮砂轮修形及误差分析软件,通过仿真正确选择砂轮安装角、砂轮半径,并输出数控砂轮修整程序.最后通过磨削和检测实例,验证了理论的正确性和软件的可行性.      

Grinding force and surface quality in creep feed profile grinding of turbine blade root of nickel-based superalloy with microcrystalline alumina abrasive wheels

Creep feed profile grinding of the fir-tree blade root forms of single crystal nickel-based superalloy was conducted using microcrystalline alumina abrasive wheels in the present study. The grinding force and the surface quality in terms of surface topography, subsurface microstructure, microhardness and residual stress obtained under different grinding conditions were evaluated comparatively. Experimental results indicated that the grinding force was influenced significantly by the competing predominance between the grinding parameters and the cross-sectional root workpiece profile. In addition, the root workpiece surface, including the root peak and valley regions, was produced with the large difference in surface quality due to the nonuniform grinding loads along the root workpiece profile in normal section. Detailed results showed that the surface roughness, subsurface plastic deformation and work hardening level of the root valley region were higher by up to 25%, 20% and 7% in average than those obtained in the root peak region, respectively, in the current investigation. Finally, the superior parameters were recommended in the creep feed profile grinding of the fir-tree blade root forms. This study is helpful to provide industry guidance to optimize the machining process for the high-valued parts with complicated profiles.