Radioisotope AMTEC power system designs for spacecraft applications

The authors describe and compare small (two-module) and larger (16-module) AMTEC (alkali metal thermal-to-electric converter) radioisotope powered systems and describe the computer model developed to predict their performance. The high efficiency and static conversion process combined with minimized parasitic losses and operating temperatures that allow the use of current materials while still maintaining a competitive radiator area are found to make AMTEC an excellent candidate for enhanced performance space power systems. AMTEC has the capability of reducing mission costs relative to other static conversion systems because of its high efficiency. AMTEC can also reduce cost relative to dynamic systems simply by being less massive (10 to 5000 W level), and its use eliminates the torque and vibration issues of dynamic systems     

Design and integration of a solar AMTEC power system with anadvanced global positioning satellite

A 1,200-W solar AMTEC (alkali metal thermal-to-electric conversion) power system concept was developed and integrated with an advanced global positioning system (GPS) satellite. The critical integration issues for the SAMTEC with the GPS subsystems included: (1) packaging within the Delta II launch vehicle envelope; (2) deployment and start-up operations for the SAMTEC; (3) SAMTEC operation during all mission phases; (4) satellite field of view restrictions with satellite operations; and (5) effect of the SAMTEC requirements on other satellite subsystems. The SAMTEC power system was compared with a conventional planar solar array/battery power system to assess the differences in system weight, size, and operations, Features of the design include the use of an advanced multitube, vapor anode AMTEC cell design with 24% conversion efficiency, and a direct solar insolation receiver design with integral LiF salt canisters for energy storage to generate power during the maximum solar eclipse cycle, The modular generator design consists of an array of multitube AMTEC cells arranged into a parallel/series electrical network with built-in cell redundancy. Our preliminary assessment indicates that the solar generator design is scaleable over a 500 to 2,500-W range. No battery power is required during the operational phase of the GPS mission. SAMTEC specific power levels greater than 5 We/kg and 160 We/m² are anticipated for a mission duration of 10 to 12 years in orbits with high natural radiation backgrounds     

Thermionic/AMTEC cascade converter concept for high-efficiencyspace power

This paper presents trade studies that address the use of the thermionic/AMTEC cell-a cascaded, high efficiency, static power conversion concept that appears well-suited to space power applications. Both the thermionic and AMTEC power conversion approaches have been shown to be promising candidates for space power. Thermionics offers system compactness via modest efficiency at high heat rejection temperatures, and AMTEC offers high efficiency at modest heat rejection temperature. From a thermal viewpoint, the two are ideally suited for cascaded power conversion: thermionic heat rejection and AMTEC heat source temperatures are essentially the same. In addition to realizing conversion efficiencies potentially as high as 35-40% such a cascade offers the following perceived benefits: Survivability-capable of operation in the Van Allen belts; Simplicity-static conversion, no moving parts; Long lifetime-no inherent life-limiting mechanisms identified; Technology readiness-Large thermionic database; AMTEC efficiencies of 18% currently being demonstrated, with more growth potential available; and Technology growth-applicable to both solar thermal and reactor-based nuclear space power systems. Mechanical approaches and thermal/electric matching criteria for integrating thermionics and AMTEC into a single conversion device are described. Focusing primarily on solar thermal space power applications, parametric trends are presented to show the performance and cost potential that should be achievable with present-day technology in cascaded thermionic/AMTEC systems     

法拉第型磁流体发电机试验和数值仿真

针对未来航空航天任务对大功率空间电源的迫切需求，开展了国内首次高温惰性气体法拉第型磁流体发电机试验研究。试验采用电弧加热器作为模拟热源，以氩气作为工质，添加铯作为电离种子以提高工质电导率，成功实现了对法拉第型磁流体发电机的原理性验证，在1 T磁场环境的试验条件下取得了最高194 W的发电功率，功率密度为866 kW/m³。根据试验条件对发电过程进行了三维数值模拟，分析结果表明：发电机输出性能受电极压降和工质速度的影响较大，需要在后续研究中改进发电机工艺以降低电极压降，并对加速喷管重新进行设计。     

MEMS Electronically Steerable Antennas for Fire Control Radars

Large apertures are of great benefit to applications that are prime powered limited as is found on aerostat and other airborne platforms. Electronically scanned array antennas are often proposed for these applications. However, increasing the aperture area with conventional array technology is met with prohibitive cost, weight, and prime power increases because of the dense spacing of phase shifters and/or active T/R modules. This discusses the recent development of RF MEMS (Microelectromechanical System) switch technology and the use of these switches in a Radanttrade lens configuration for arrays of approximately 10 m² at X-band. A proof-of-concept 0.4 m² MEMS Electronically Steerable Antenna (ESA) containing 25,000 MEMS switches has been successfully designed, fabricated, and tested. The 0.4 m² MEMS ESA was then integrated with an AN/APG-67 radar system to form the MEMS Demonstration Radar System. The MEMS Demonstration Radar System successfully detected both airborne and ground moving targets during a series of extensive radar demonstrations. This is believed to be the first large scale employment of MEMS switches in a scanning antenna and radar system. The low-cost, lightweight, and low power technology demonstrated can enable weight and power constrained platforms with electronic steering.     

Lightweight (AlGaAs)GaAs/CuInSe2 tandem junction solarcells for space applications

Mechanically stacked tandem cells consisting of GaAs thin-film upper cells and CuInSe₂ thin-film lower cells have been developed to meet the increasing power needs projected for future spacecraft. The authors report the fabrication of the first highly efficient lightweight GaAs/CuInSe₂ tandem cell on a 2-mil thick substrate, update recent performance improvements in thin-film GaAs/CuInSe₂ tandem cells, and discuss their application to space power systems. The efficiency of 4-cm² cells has improved to 21.6% AM0, the highest ever reported for a thin-film photovoltaic cell. Lightweight 4-cm² tandem cells have been successfully fabricated with efficiencies as high as 20.8%. These cells weighed about 180 mg without optimized substrate trimming. Radiation and operating temperature effects on GaAs/CuInSe₂ tandem cells are also discussed, and an interconnect scheme to form a voltage-matched string is described     

AMTEC cells challenge energy converters

Sodium-base alkali-metal-thermal-to-electric conversion (AMTEC) cells have been receiving attention. Recently they were selected for the next generation deep-space missions, which need a converter that makes electricity from radioisotope heat. The AMTEC cell, being an electrochemical converter of heat to electricity, has no moving parts and is not limited to Carnot-cycle efficiency. However, its heat source and sink have to be near each other, so the challenge in AMTEC design is to minimize thermal losses and maximize electricity production. This required clever thermal designs. By 1991, high-temperature materials and computer modeling became available. The important AMTEC application was generating power from radioisotope heat in deep space missions. These spacecraft power needs had previously been supplied by inefficient thermoelectric converters     

Micro-power Amtec systems

There are several terrestrial applications for energy conversion systems with electrical outputs of a few volts in the power range from hundreds of milliwatts to a few watts. Potential applications include: power for instrumentation, communication and device actuation in severe or harsh environments, as well as a variety of low duty cycle monitoring tasks for the military. For cost and/or packaging reasons, some of these applications are severely heat source limited. In this paper we describe the development and performance of AMTEC systems capable of producing 0.3 to 0.5 watts from a radioisotope heat source limited to a total thermal output of less than 4 watts, The approach utilizes a new “chimney cell” design and a thermal insulation system consisting of a specialized multi-layer insulation (MLI) package in combination with fibrous insulation. The cell operates at 0.4 W_c to over 0.5 W_c with an input surface temperature of 700°C. Measurements of the thermal performance of a readily manufactured MLI package indicate that operation at these temperatures will be achievable with a total heat input of ~4 W_th     

Next-Generation Thin-Film Photovoltaics

Future spacecraft and high-altitude airship (HAA) solar array technologies will require high array specific power (W/kg), which can be met using thin-film photovoltaics (PV) on lightweight and flexible substrates [1]. Thin-film array technology, with thin-film specific array support structure, begin to exceed the specific power of crystalline multi-junction arrays with thin-film device efficiencies as low as 8.5% [2]. Thin-film PV devices have other advantages in that they are more easily integrated into HAAs, and are projected to be much less costly than their crystalline PV counterparts. Furthermore, it is likely that only thin-film array technology will be able to meet device specific power requirements exceeding 1 kW/kg (photovoltaic and integrated substrate/blanket mass only).     

Bipolar nickel-metal hydride batteries for aerospace applications

Electro Energy Inc. (EEI) is developing high power, long life, bipolar nickel-metal hydride batteries for aerospace applications. Bipolar nickel-metal hydride designs allow for high energy and high power designs with a 25 percent reduction in both weight and volume as compared to prismatic and/or cylindrical Ni-MH designs. Utilizing a sealed wafer cell design EEI has demonstrated a 1.2 kW/kg power capability. Prototype designs have achieved 70 Wh/kg. Designs studies show 80 Wh/kg are achievable with EEI's state-of-the-art technology. The sealed wafer cell is the building block for EEI's high power and high voltage bipolar batteries making the assembly easy and significantly lower in cost. Satellite and aircraft batteries are being developed which provide high power and long life. Sealed cells now show excellent rate capability and life. Cells tested in a low earth orbit (LEO) cycle have reached 9000 cycles and continue on test. High power, bipolar battery designs are ideal in applications where using conventional aerospace battery technology would require excessive capacity; weight and volume, thereby reducing usable payload on the vehicle     

First Mars outpost power systems

Research into potential power systems for the First Mars Outpost (FMO) was performed. The author examined a representative mission architecture which was developed by NASA to determine power system requirements. Power system options including nuclear, isotope, photovoltaic (PV), chemical heat engine, and regenerative fuel cell (RFC) concepts were identified for potential Mars surface applications. A top-level characterization study was conducted to determine power system mass and area for each application. It is seen that PV systems are generally not suited for Mars surface applications due to the large surface area required and higher mass than a closed Brayton cycle SP100 reactor system. A reactor is currently being considered by NASA Lewis Research Center to provide power for base architectures including an ISRU (in situ resource utilization). An oxygen/methane powered heat engine would provide 40 kWe of emergency power for the habitat. A dynamic isotope power system (DIPS) is the current choice for a long-duration pressurized rover due to the excessive size of a PV/RFC system and higher mass of a heat engine system. DIPS has advantages for other low power systems due to its neatly immediate availability and flexibility (night or day power; no recharging required)     

Fuel cell status, 1994

The high efficiency environmental benefits and other attributes of fuel cells have attracted world-wide attention to the technology. Approximately 250 phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) power units, 35 molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) stacks, and 12 solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) modules have been or are being operated. Total capacity installed or operating is close to 45 MW. Fuel cell development has progressed to where complete power plants have reached nearly 16,000 operating hours and this continues to increase. Developers in the U.S. and Japan have embarked on extensive government and private programs to commercialize the technology in those countries and abroad. By mid-1994, the U.S. sold and shipped to other countries at least 33 PAFC 200 kW plants, 20 675 kW PAFC stacks, two SOFC 25 kW modules, and one MCFC system. Additional units have been produced for the domestic market. There is intense interest in Japan where there are very stringent environmental regulations and fuel prices are high. The fuel cell can respond with its combined attributes of low emissions and relative high efficiency. In Europe, the environmental cleanliness of fuel cell power units holds the promise of preserving the quality of life, motivating support and development of the technology. Canada and Australia have spawned important development programs. Interest continues to increase in other parts of the world. The author reviews the 1994 status and outlines the future development trends in this area     

High efficiency dynamic radioisotope power systems for spaceexploration-a status report

Background on the space exploration program is discussed, and the currently identified NASA exploration missions are contrasted with the missions that were being planned a year ago. Developments in high-efficiency dynamic radioisotope power systems are discussed: and Brayton and Stirling power conversion cycles are compared for the missions planned for the next decade. Issues related to the use of high-efficiency radioisotope (HER) power systems are identified. It is noted that HER power systems are approximately three times as efficient as current radioisotope thermoelectric generators(RTGs) and are therefore significantly cheaper. Additionally, the world's supply of ²³⁸Pu is extremely limited. Currently discussed missions would cut deeply into this supply if powered by RTGs     

Impact Potential of New Power Electronic Technologies

New technological advances in the area of power electronics are having an increasing impact on the design of aerospace control systems. These next generation power components promise improved system performance through increased electronic efficiencies. Applying state-of-the-art packaging concepts as an integral part of the system design will allow these devices to be utilized in a space efficient and reliable manner. The first portion of this paper looks at two such next generation components. The first is a High Voltage Integrated Circuit (HVIC) that provides a bridge between the low voltage controller logic and the high voltage motor winding invertor. This device achieves size reduction and an increase in reliability through integration of low and high voltage logic networks on a single integrated circuit. The second is the Insulated Gate Transistor (IGT). This device provides a high voltage switch with MOS-like drive characteristics. The present and future expectations of these power devices are discussed. This paper then looks at new packaging techniques for power devices. The impact of parasitic circuit effects have significant impact on power circuit performance. Finally, this paper looks at an example control application. The design is that of a permanent magnet motor driven actuator. The drive motor uses 270 vdc for supply voltage. Within the intelligent system controller, is the capability to control the current demands of the motor. The new power electronics devices are making the design feasible in both thermal and volume efficiency. This topic includes projected controller sizing into the 1990s.     

等离子体激励抑制喷管分离流动数值模拟

为研究等离子体激励器对喷管分离流动的抑制作用,运用了模拟等离子体激励作用效果的唯象学模型,数值模拟研究了交流介质阻挡放电等离子体和电弧放电等离子体对喷管分离流动的抑制效果,并探究了电弧放电等离子体不同放电热功率密度、不同放电位置对抑制效果的影响。结果表明：电弧放电等离子体在抑制喷管分离流动方面有更好的效果。当电弧放电等离子体激励器作用于激波与边界层相互作用区的上游时,对分离流动的抑制效果最好;当电弧放电热功率密度较小时,其产生的诱导射流速度很小且不易对分离区的流线产生影响;当电弧放电热功率密度为8×10¹⁰ W/m³时,喷管的分离回流区完全消失。     

大气压条件下高焓空气等离子体流场特性及应用

评估和鉴定高超声速飞行器防热材料使用性能,需要在能够模拟飞行气动热环境的高焓设备中进行大量地面试验。详细介绍了一种能够运行在大气压条件下的电感耦合等离子体设备,该设备能够产生多种气体（空气、氮气、二氧化碳、氩气）的等离子体射流,运行功率范围为27~85.5 kW,最大运行效率可达77.9%。通过对30 mm的亚声速喷管出口8 mm处空气等离子体流场参数高精度重构和发射光谱测试研究,获得了气体温度和光谱发射强度沿径向的分布,等离子体的焓值范围为8.54~22.2 MJ/kg,驻点热流最高可达721 W/cm²。选定2个试验状态对典型防热材料C/SiC进行烧蚀氧化考核试验,并通过与国内外同类设备比较,表明该大气压感应耦合等离子体设备达到国际先进水平,完全具备开展高超声速飞行器防热材料性能改进地面模拟试验的能力。     

竖直圆管内超临界碳氢燃料换热恶化的直径效应

利用Fluent对超临界压力下直径对碳氢燃料换热恶化的影响进行数值研究,湍流模化采用Launder-Sharma（LS）低雷诺数模型,物性采用广义对应态法则对RP-3替代燃料计算。计算条件：系统压力为3 MPa,进口温度为573 K,热流密度为500 kW/m²,质量流量为0.001 5和0.003 0 kg/s,直径范围为1~10 mm。正常换热条件下的计算壁温和实验结果基本吻合,证明了计算方法的准确度。结果表明：强制对流下小质量流量时直径越大,换热恶化程度更高且更提前发生,换热恶化是由定压比热容处于极大值后的急剧下降区导致的,大质量流量时直径与壁温成正比,无换热恶化发生;浮升力效应仅在小质量流量下起作用,随着直径增大而加强,给出RP-3流动换热时浮升力起作用的判据和不同直径下换热恶化的边界。     

Minitact gyroscope-the low cost alternative

The allure of the solid state optical gyros is being challenged by the invention of a new spinning mass device, providing superior low noise drift performance, high reliability at a very low cost. The Minitact is a unique two axis gyroscope advancing the technology of spinning mass devices to set new low cost standards. Minitact provides all the low noise performance benefits of tuned rotor gyroscopes without the vagaries of fixture suspension systems. The Minitact design integrates together the advantages of a spherical hydrodynamic gas bearing and a three axis permanent magnet DC commutated, motor and torquer, into miniature two aids gyroscope with a dynamic range of greater than 10^-7. The design is described and performance data presented illustrating the capability of this low cost next generation rate gyroscope. The Minitact is the result of Integrated Product Development (IPD) and Design to Unit Production Cost (DTUPC) design processes and is expected to become the tactical performance benchmark     

Evaluation of active hybrid fuel cell/battery power sources

Hybrid fuel cell/battery power sources have potentially widespread uses in applications wherein the power demand is impulsive rather than constant. Interposing a dc/dc converter between a fuel cell and a battery can create two configurations of actively controlled hybrid fuel cell/battery power sources. Those two configurations are compared using both theory and experiment with special attention to the peak power enhancement, and power losses in the converter. Both of the defined configurations were built, using a 35 W polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell, an 8-cell lithium-ion battery pack, and a high-efficiency power converter. Both two configurations yielded a peak power output of 135 W, about 4 times as high as the fuel cell alone could supply, with only a slight (13%) increase of weight. The converter losses were quantitatively analyzed. Which of the two configurations yields a smaller loss depends on the load power demand characteristics including peak power and load duty ratio. The study results provide guidance for the design of hybrid sources according to the particular load power requirements.     

Electrochemical capacitors utilizing low surface area carbon fiber

The performance of electrochemical capacitors containing different commercial carbon fibers is reviewed. High specific capacitance (ca. 300 F/g) is obtained with low surface area carbon fiber (<1 m²/g) using a proprietary activation process. Capacitance is primarily achieved through pseudocapacitance resulting from surface functional groups. The performance of these devices is dependent on the type of carbon fiber, its carbon content, aspect ratio and microstructure. These devices can achieve high cycle life (ca. 100 k) without significant loss in capacitance