Review of Radiation Damage to Silicon Solar Cells

This paper reviews a large number of silicon solar cell irradiation experiments performed over the last 10 years, including 1-MeV and energy spectrum electron studies, and low-(100-keV) and high-energy (up to 155-MeV) proton studies on bare and covered silicon solar cells of several types. The results of satellite flight experiments on individual solar cells are also presented, as well as data from complete solar arrays and data on the new high-efficiency solar cells. Experimental evidence indicates that the percentage of degradation is smaller in thin solar cells than in thick ones, and that cells with high resistivity (10 ?·cm) degrade less than cells with lower resistivity (1 ?·cm). It is shown that high-efficiency silicon solar cells produced at COMSAT Laboratories and pilot production groups of these cells retain most of their increased power output under irradiation. It is emphasized that all surfaces and edges of the solar cells must be completely shielded from the large flux protons in the space environment. Insufficiencies in the published data are noted in certain areas, and recommendations for additional research are presented. Finally, an extensive bibliography is included.     

High-efficiency GaInP/GaAs tandem solar cells

GaInP/GaAs tandem solar cells have achieved new record efficiencies, specifically 25.7% under air-mass 0 (AMO) illumination, 29.5% under AM 1.5 global (AM1.5G) illumination, and 30.2% at 140-180x concentration under AM 1.5 direct (AM1.5D) illumination. These values are the highest two-terminal efficiencies achieved by any solar cell under these illumination conditions. The monolithic, series-connected design of the tandem cells allows them to be substituted for silicon or gallium arsenide cells in photovoltaic panel systems with minimal design changes. The advantages of using GaInP/GaAs tandem solar cells in space and terrestrial applications are discussed primarily in terms of the reduction in balance-of-system costs that accrues when using a higher efficiency cell. The new efficiency values represent a significant improvement over previous efficiencies for this materials system, and we identify grid design, back interface passivation, and top interface passivation as the three key factors leading to this improvement. In producing the high-efficiency cells, we have addressed nondestructive diagnostics and materials growth reproducibility as well as peak cell performance     

The Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR) Experiment on the Huygens Entry Probe of Titan

The payload of the Huygens Probe into the atmosphere of Titan includes the Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR). This instrument includes an integrated package of several optical instruments built around a silicon charge coupled device (CCD) detector, a pair of linear InGaAs array detectors, and several individual silicon detectors. Fiber optics are used extensively to feed these detectors with light collected from three frame imagers, an upward and downward-looking visible spectrometer, an upward and downward looking near-infrared spectrometer, upward and downward looking violet phtotometers, a four-channel solar aerole camera, and a sun sensor that determines the azimuth and zenith angle of the sun and measures the flux in the direct solar beam at 940 nm. An onboard optical calibration system uses a small lamp and fiber optics to track the relative sensitivity of the different optical instruments relative to each other during the seven year cruise to Titan. A 20 watt lamp and collimator are used to provide spectrally continuous illumination of the surface during the last 100 m of the descent for measurements of the reflection spectrum of the surface. The instrument contains software and hardware data compressors to permit measurements of upward and downward direct and diffuse solar flux between 350 and 1700 nm in some 330 spectral bands at approximately 2 km vertical resolution from an alititude of 160 km to the surface. The solar aureole camera measures the brightness of a 6° wide strip of the sky from 25 to 75° zenith angle near and opposite the azimuth of the sun in two passbands near 500 and 935 nm using vertical and horizontal polarizers in each spectral channel at a similar vertical resolution. The downward-looking spectrometers provide the reflection spectrum of the surface at a total of some 600 locations between 850 and 1700 nm and at more than 3000 locations between 480 and 960 nm. Some 500 individual images of the surface are expected which can be assembled into about a dozen panoramic mosaics covering nadir angles from 6° to 96° at all azimuths. The spatial resolution of the images varies from 300 m at 160 km altitude to some 20 cm in the last frames. The scientific objectives of the experiment fall into four areas including (1) measurement of the solar heating profile for studies of the thermal balance of Titan; (2) imaging and spectral reflection measurements of the surface for studies of the composition, topography, and physical processes which form the surface as well as for direct measurements of the wind profile during the descent; (3) measurements of the brightness and degree of linear polarization of scattered sunlight including the solar aureole together with measurements of the extinction optical depth of the aerosols as a function of wavelength and altitude to study the size, shape, vertical distribution, optical properties, sources and sinks of aerosols in Titan's atmosphere; and (4) measurements of the spectrum of downward solar flux to study the composition of the atmosphere, especially the mixing ratio profile of methane throughout the descent. We briefly outline the methods by which the flight instrument was calibrated for absolute response, relative spectral response, and field of view over a very wide temperature range. We also give several examples of data collected in the Earth's atmosphere using a spare instrument including images obtained from a helicopter flight program, reflection spectra of various types of terrain, solar aureole measurements including the determination of aerosol size, and measurements of the downward flux of violet, visible, and near infrared sunlight. The extinction optical depths measured as a function of wavelength are compared to models of the Earth's atmosphere and are divided into contributions from molecular scattering, aerosol extinction, and molecular absorption. The test observations during simulated descents with mountain and rooftop venues in the Earth's atmosphere are very important for driving out problems in the calibration and interpretion of the observations to permit rapid analysis of the observations after Titan entry. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Electrical Characteristics of Silicon Solar Cells at Low Temperatures

Experimentally determined values of open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and maximum power for p on n and n on p silicon solar cells are presented for temperatures ranging from -196°C to + 50°C under equivalent space sunlight intensities of 58 mW/cm2 and 268 mW/cm2. An anomalous behavior is observed in the n on p cells at low temperatures; namely, the open-circuit voltage becomes nearly independent of temperature below a transition temperature Tt that depends on the sunlight intensity.     

银膜的原子氧剥蚀效应及其防护的试验研究

 空间太阳电池板作为空间飞行器电源系统的重要组成部分,它的正常工作对飞行器的运行起着非常重要的作用,而作为互连片的银材料,可能会与空间环境中的原子氧发生反应,生成不导电的氧化物,从而影响空间太阳电池板的有效寿命。本文在原子氧效应地面模拟试验设备中,对银以及镀有不同防护层的银膜进行了原子氧效应地面模拟试验研究,对试验前后试样的外观、质量进行了比较,获得了银在设备中的反应特点,同时对不同防护镀层的有效性进行了验证,为银互连片在空间太阳电池板上的应用及其防护提供了设计依据。     

Large area solar cells for future space power systems

Space silicon solar cell technology has matured to the extent that large-area planar silicon cells can be fabricated in sizes up to 8 cm×8 cm with efficiencies up to approximately 15%. In order to achieve substantially higher efficiencies, cells based on GaAs are required. It is shown that, subject to certain boundary conditions, the efficiency of GaAs/Ge cells can reach 24% when used in the dual-junction configuration or approximately 19.5% if the Ge substrate is passive. The electrooptical properties of these cells are reviewed, and prospects for achieving these efficiency goals are presented. Experimental performance data are given     

飞行状态对太阳能飞机中组件性能的影响

基于光伏组件产生功率模型，研究了太阳能飞机中飞行速度、高度、时间及区域等状态参数影响组件性能的规律。以单晶硅组件及Xihe太阳能飞机为研究对象，当飞机飞行速度增加时，组件产生的功率随之增加但趋于饱和。原因在于速度的增加能有效降低组件的表面温度，但提升是有限的。飞机所需的功率随飞行速度呈现指数增加，且组件产生的功率与飞机所需的功率有能量平衡点。组件产生的功率随飞行高度的增加而增加，但有饱和的趋势。原因在于，当飞行高度上升，大气温度随之下降，组件表面温度下降；同时海拔越高，大气密度和大气通透率越大，太阳辐射增加，从而组件产生的功率增加了；饱和的原因在于组件本身性能的限制。一天之中，组件产生的功率基本以太阳时12点为中心左右近似对称，中午最强；一年中组件性能在夏季最强，冬季最弱。原因在于组件性能主要由所受太阳辐射决定。随着纬度的增加，组件产生的功率减小。原因在于，纬度越高，太阳高度角越小，组件所能接受到的太阳辐射也就越小；纬度越低，组件总产生功率越高且平稳。纬度低的地区更适合太阳能飞机的飞行。该文为太阳能飞机的能量分配、长时间驻空提供一定的帮助。     

原子氧对Kapton／Al薄膜性能影响研究

模拟空间环境下原子氧辐照条件,通过采用固定的原子氧束流密度进行不同时间辐照试验,研究了温控涂层材料Kapton/Al薄膜的质量损失、光学性能、表面形貌和表面粗糙度的演化规律.试验结果表明,原子氧对材料的剥蚀量与原子氧的作用时间成正比例关系.材料辐照后太阳吸收率发生明显变化,而辐射率几乎不发生变化.辐照后试样表面的粗糙度,是影响太阳吸收率变化主要因素.随着辐照时间的增长,材料表面粗糙度增加,导致太阳吸收率增大.     

三轴稳定式卫星的热特性研究

热特性研究是卫星热控制系统、红外辐射特性研究、红外隐身设计的基础和重要组成部分。建立卫星运行轨道计算模型,获得不同时刻卫星三维坐标及轨道高度。根据太阳、卫星、地球三者位置关系,建立三轴稳定式卫星空间热流计算模型。综合考虑空间热流、向外辐射、内部热载荷等因素,对卫星进行传热分析计算,获得各时刻卫星各面温度分布。分析了太阳吸收系数和卫星内部热载荷对表面温度分布的影响。研究结果表明:卫星在地球阴影区各面温度明显降低;除了散热面,太阳吸收系数对卫星表面温度影响显著;可以根据散热面大致地判断卫星运行状况。     

Neutron measurements in space

The experimental measurements of the neutron flux and energy spectrum in space since 1964 are reviewed and related to the theoretical predictions. A discussion of the neutron sources is presented. The difficulties associated with neutron measurements of both the atmospheric neutron leakage flux and solar neutrons are included. Particular emphasis is placed upon the neutron leakage flux and energy measurements at energies greater than about 1 MeV. The possibilities of CRAND as a source for the energetic trapped protons are discussed in light of recent measurements of the 10–100 MeV neutron flux. The current status of the solar neutron flux observations is also presented.The primary purposes of neutron measurements in space have been to determine the neutron leakage flux from the atmosphere of the Earth and the solar neutron flux. As a consequence of the inefficient methods for neutron detection and the difficulties of conducting the measurements in the presence of the galactic and solar cosmic-ray backgrounds, the experimental results are very conflicting. It is the purpose of this review to interpret and discuss recent neutron measurements. In order to understand these results the theoretical predictions of the neutron fluxes and energy spectra from possible neutron sources will be briefly presented. Since comparisons of the different neutron measurements depend critically upon the experimental techniques, we will briefly discuss neutron detection methods applicable to space measurements. The emphasis will be upon measurements since 1964 made outside the Earth's atmosphere, but considerable reference will be made to high energy neutron experiments conducted within the Earth's atmosphere at < 10g cm^-2 altitude. A review of earlier neutron measurements of terrestrial and solar neutrons has been made by Haymes (1965).     

Solar cycle dependence of global distribution of solar wind speed

A review is given of observational results concerning the solar cycle dependence of the global structure of solar wind speed distribution during the years from 1973 to 1987. Since observations of solar wind speed in 3-dimensional space can only be made by the interplanetary scintillation method which has been carried out over one sunspot activity cycle since the early 1970's, the review is based on IPS observations. The low-speed regions tend to be distributed along neutral lines which are derived on the source surface, so comparisons between speed distribution and the neutral line are discussed.     

Space Weather and the Ground-Level Solar Proton Events of the 23rd Solar Cycle

Solar proton events can adversely affect space and ground-based systems. Ground-level events are a subset of solar proton events that have a harder spectrum than average solar proton events and are detectable on Earth’s surface by cosmic radiation ionization chambers, muon detectors, and neutron monitors. This paper summarizes the space weather effects associated with ground-level solar proton events during the 23rd solar cycle. These effects include communication and navigation systems, spacecraft electronics and operations, space power systems, manned space missions, and commercial aircraft operations. The major effect of ground-level events that affect manned spacecraft operations is increased radiation exposure. The primary effect on commercial aircraft operations is the loss of high frequency communication and, at extreme polar latitudes, an increase in the radiation exposure above that experienced from the background galactic cosmic radiation. Calculations of the maximum potential aircraft polar route exposure for each ground-level event of the 23rd solar cycle are presented. The space weather effects in October and November 2003 are highlighted together with on-going efforts to utilize cosmic ray neutron monitors to predict high energy solar proton events, thus providing an alert so that system operators can possibly make adjustments to vulnerable spacecraft operations and polar aircraft routes.     

高温粘结剂对碳材料的粘接性能

以酚醛树脂（PF）为基体原料，以含B、Si的陶瓷为改性填料制备高温粘结剂并对石墨材料进行粘接。结果表明，高温粘结剂对石墨材料具有较为理想的粘接性能，陶瓷填料有效改善了高温处理后接头的体积收缩现象，并在粘接界面处形成了较强的化学键合力。     

基于太阳能飞机应用的低雷诺数翼型研究

以太阳能飞机为背景,对低雷诺数翼型FX 63-137进行了折线型建模以拟合典型晶硅太阳能电池片对气动外形的影响,开展了气动数值模拟分析。首先引用"拟合优度"的定义描述本文折线型翼型轮廓与基准翼型(Baseline)的吻合度,并以此参数为变量建立5种折线型翼型模型;然后,采用计算流体力学(CFD)方法计算分析了不同雷诺数下各折线型翼型的气动特性,并着重研究了低雷诺数下折线型翼型的绕流机理;最后,基于工程应用实际的需求,提出了晶硅太阳能电池片的铺设方法也即折线型翼型设计思想准则,并进行算例验证。研究结果表明:低雷诺数条件下,折线型翼型升阻性能相比光滑翼型在一定程度上表现出了优势,但随着雷诺数的增加,升阻方面的优势逐渐消失;折线型翼型压力分布受各折线段长度影响,前缘吸力峰值、压力平台范围以及压力恢复区分布特征是决定折线型翼型气动性能的主要因素;通过设计的算例验证了本文提出的折线型翼型设计思想的可行性。     

Electric space propulsion systems

Active development of electric thrustors began 10 years ago. Today, several kinds of thrustors have achieved efficiencies above 90 % and lifetimes of several thousand hours. The following article derives the basic theory of electric thrust production at constant exhaust velocity, and at variable exhaust velocity programmed for optimum vehicle performance. Electrothermal or arcjet; electrostatic or ion; and electrodynamic or plasma thrustors are described. At the present time, ion thrustors of the electron bombardment and of the surface ionization types are the most promising systems. Electric power in space may be generated by solar cells or nuclear-electric generators. It is expected that the incore thermionic converter will eventually be the preferred system. A variety of missions with electric propulsion systems appear feasible and highly desirable, among them orbital station keeping, attitude control, planetary probes, solar and out-of-the-ecliptic probes, deep-space probes, and manned Mars and Venus exploration. For each mission, a careful systems-design study must be made, which will provide the optimum selection of thrustor type, thrust level, exhaust velocity, thrust program, power source, trajectory, and flight plan.     

Reconstruction of Past Solar Irradiance

Accurate measurements of solar irradiance started in 1978, but a much longer time series is needed in order to uncover a possible influence on the Earth's climate. In order to reconstruct the irradiance prior to 1978 we require both an understanding of the underlying causes of solar irradiance variability as well as data describing the state of the Sun (in particular its magnetic field) at the relevant epochs.Evidence is accumulating that on the time-scale of the solar cycle or less, variations in solar irradiance are produced mainly by changes in the amount and distribution of magnetic flux on the solar surface. The main solar features contributing to a darkening of the Sun are sunspots, while active-region faculae and the network lead to a brightening. There is also increasing evidence for secular changes of the solar magnetic field and the associated of solar brightness variability. In part the behavior of sun-like stars is used as a guide of such secular changes.Under the assumption that solar irradiance variations are due to solar surface magnetism on all relevant time scales it is possible to reconstruct the irradiance with some reliability from today to around 1874, and with lower accuracy back to the Maunder minimum. One major problem is the decreasing amount and accuracy of the relevant data with age. In this review the various reconstructions of past solar irradiance are presented and the assumptions underlying them are scrutinized.     

软着陆小行星的制导与控制规律研究

提出了一种微小探测器软着陆小行星的制导与控制策略，将软着陆小行星控制分解为速度方向控制和减速控制，为了控制速度方向，给出了一种带有终端控制项的比例导引规律，可以按闭环模式将探测器引向着陆点，并满足垂直下落的终端条件，为了实现无碰撞着陆，给出了一种减速控制规律，通过对理想速度曲线的跟踪，实现软着陆，仿具结果表明，提出的制导与控制策略可以实现探测器在小行星表面垂直软着陆。     

Solar Irradiance Variability Since 1978

Since November 1978 a set of total solar irradiance (TSI) measurements from space is available, yielding a time series of more than 25 years. Presently, there are three TSI composites available, called PMOD, ACRIM and IRMB, which are all constructed from the same original data, but use different procedures to correct for sensitivity changes. The PMOD composite is the only one which also corrects the early HF data for degradation. The results from the detailed analysis of the VIRGO radiometry allow a good understanding of the effects influencing the long-term behaviour of classical radiometers in space. Thus, a re-analysis of the behaviour of HF/NIMBUS-7 and ACRIM-I/SMM was indicated. For the former the situation is complicated by the fact that there are no in-flight means to determine changes due to exposure to solar radiation by comparison with a less exposed radiometer on the same spacecraft. The geometry and optical property of the cavity of HF is, however, very similar to the PMO6-type radiometers, so the behaviour of the PMO6V radiometers on VIRGO can be used as a model. ACRIM-I had to be revised mainly due to a henceforth undetected early increase and a more detailed analysis of its degradation. The results are not only important for solar radiometry from space, but they also provide a more reliable TSI during cycle 21. The differences between the revised PMOD composite and the ACRIM and IRMB are discussed by comparison with a TSI reconstruction from Kitt-Peak magnetograms. As the PMOD composite is the only one which has reliable data for cycle 21, the behaviour of the three solar cycles can now be compared and the similarities and differences discussed.     

Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere: Requirements for Future Observations

Since the publication of Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere in 1998 there has been great progress in understanding how and why cosmic rays vary in space and time. This paper discusses measurements that are needed to continue advances in relating cosmic ray variations to changes in solar and interplanetary activity and variations in the local interstellar environment. Cosmic ray acceleration and transport is an important discipline in space physics and astrophysics, but it also plays a critical role in defining the radiation environment for humans and hardware in space, and is critical to efforts to unravel the history of solar activity. Cosmic rays are measured directly by balloon-borne and space instruments, and indirectly by ground-based neutron, muon and neutrino detectors, and by measurements of cosmogenic isotopes in ice cores, tree-rings, sediments, and meteorites. The topics covered here include: what we can learn from the deep 2008–2009 solar minimum, when cosmic rays reached the highest intensities of the space era; the implications of ¹⁰Be and ¹⁴C isotope archives for past and future solar activity; the effects of variations in the size of the heliosphere; opportunities provided by the Voyagers for discovering the origin of anomalous cosmic rays and measuring cosmic-ray spectra in interstellar space; and future space missions that can continue the exciting exploration of the heliosphere that has occurred over the past 50 years.