Bistatic radar as a tool for earth investigation using small satellites

Bistatic radar is a facility for the Earth remote sensing, which uses large spatial diversity between its transmitter and receiver. Nomogram method is proposed to determine the radar's parameters. Analysis of the nomograms has shown that modern onboard radio facilities allow to obtain spatial resolution of about 100 m at the wavelength λ = 3 cm for LEO satellite (H = 350 km). Experiments of bistatic radiolocation of the Earth near the radioshadow zone were provided using telecommunication link “MIR” orbital station — GEO satellite at wavelength λ = 32 cm. For the first time in practice of bistatic radiolocation of the Earth from space reflected signal in radioshadow zone was observed.The analysis of experimental results verified the developed radiophysical model with the value of sea water conductivity σ = 7.0 mo/m and absorption coefficient due to atmospheric oxygen χ = 0.0096±0.0024 dB/km.     

Mature systems for small satellite missions

Over the past several years Satellites International has developed an integrated suite of satellite sub-systems and small satellite buses. The sub-systems include S-band communications, attitude sensing and control, power conversion and distribution, and on-board data handling. They are inherently modular and readily adaptable to different satellite configurations, a concept known as semi-standardisation. This concept has been adopted by two generic low-cost buses: MicroSIL for satellites in the mass range 40–80kg; and MiniSIL for satellites in the range 100–500kg. Their architecture is based on the semi-standard sub-systems, but easily modified to utilise sub-systems from other manufacturers. They can support all stabilisation methods including spinning, 3-axis control and gravity gradient and are adaptable to a wide variety of missions including Earth resources, scientific, communications and technology demonstration. The Company also manufactures a range of low cost ground support equipment and complete ground stations to complement the space-borne systems.     

Effect of liquid bridge form on oscillatory thermocapillary convection under 1 g and μg conditions

This study analyses the effect of temperature difference between hot and cool disk (ΔT), and non-dimensional liquid bridge volume (V/V_o) on the transition process from steady thermocapillary convection to periodic or chaotic thermocapillary convection in a liquid bridge modeled after the floating zone method under normal gravity and microgravity conditions. From normal gravity and drop shaft experiments, the difference of the regime of the steady state and the oscillatory state was clarified on the ΔT−V/V_o plane under 1 g and μg conditions. A gap or stability region was observed in the specific V/V_o range under 1 g conditions. In the gap or stable region, after the gravity changed from 1 g to μg conditions, the temperature signals showed oscillation. From these results, the critical temperature difference under the μg conditions appeared to be smaller than that under the 1 g conditions. Temperature signals were defined as 6 different types of states. The various temperature oscillatory state regimes were obtained on a ΔT−V/V_o plane under 1 g and μg conditions. Under μg conditions, in these experimental conditions, all temperature oscillatory states exhibited only the Periodic state.     

Analysis and pre-development of an imaging spectrometer for in-situ cometary soil analysis on-board the esa rosetta mission

The CIVA-M instrument, a highly integrated infrared/visible microscope for the Rosetta mission (ESA — 2003) is presented. It will enable scientists to study in great detail the composition of the Wirtanen Comet: minerals, organic compounds and ices. A monochromator will illuminate a cometary sample, drilled from the comet sub-surface (≈40cm). An infrared detector will give an image of the sample for each wavelength, from 1 to 4μm with a spectral resolution of 6nm and a spatial resolution of 50 μm. In order to analyze accurately spectra a signal to noise ratio of 50 is needed (for ALBEDO = 0.04). We will use a 128×128 elements photovoltaic mercury cadmium telluride bi-dimensional array working at intermediate temperature (110K to 150K), from the French company SOFRADIR. At such relatively high temperature the critical parameter is the dark current: it limits the exposure time, preventing a high signal to noise ratio. I am in charge of the electronic board, which is the interface between the detector and the on-board processor. Some preliminary results obtained with this board, on a test detector, are then discussed.     

Advanced detectors and instruments for small satellites

This paper presents some approaches to the development of advanced detectors and to miniaturized instrument design which are pursued in the Institute of Space Sensor Technology of DLR (the German Aerospace Research Establishment). The instrument design approach is demonstrated for a low-weight (3 kg) dual camera system with narrow-angle in-track stereo and wide-angle multispectral features. Each camera has its own signal processor and 0,5 G Bit mass memory. The activities for advanced detector development are concentrated on two different kinds of detectors and instrumentations: infrared detector arrays and instruments at wavelengths out to about 240 μm, and superheterodyne receivers in the submillimeter and far-infrared spectral ranges.     

Naval EarthMap Observer (NEMO) program and the Naval Space Science and Technology Program Office

In February 1997 the Chief of Naval Research chartered the Naval Space Science and Technology (S&T) Program Office, at the Office of Naval Research, to operate as the central point of contact for the Department of the Navy's (DON's) S&T activities in space. The Office was chartered to enhance the DON's space efforts through interdepartmental integration and linkage with external Department of Defense (DOD) commands and government agencies. The Office's goal is to optimize a plan for S&T coherency, synergy, and relevancy to effect technology transition to the DON's Systems Commands or Program Executive Offices (PEO's) while developing an investment strategy that accommodates and leverages the commonality of commercial and consumer thrust areas and products.

This paper will focus on the “Flagship” Naval Space S&T Program, the Naval EarthMap Observer (NEMO) Program, as one example of how the Office is executing its mission. It will discuss how, through NEMO, the Navy is able to leverage commercial industry and other US government agency requirements and resources to meet unique Naval needs. Finally, the paper will discuss the specifics of NEMO, the Navy's roles and responsibilities and how the Navy will use NEMO in its mission to characterize the littoral regions of the world.

Through the NEMO satellite system, the Navy will develop a large hyperspectral imagery database which will be used to characterize and model the littoral regions of the world. NEMO will provide images using its Coastal Ocean Imaging Spectrometer (COIS) Instrument along with a co-registered 5m Panchromatic Imager (PIC). With 210 spectral channels over a bandpass of 0.4 to 2.5μm and very high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the COIS instrument is optimized for the low reflectance environment of the littoral region. COIS will image over a 30km wide swath with a 60m Ground Sample Distance (GSD), and can image at a 30m GSD with ground motion compensation. A 10:30am, sun-synchronous circular orbit of 605km enables continuous repeat coverage of the whole earth. A unique aspect of the system is the spectral feature extraction and data compression software algorithm developed by the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) called the Optical Real-Time Spectral Identification System (ORA-SIS). ORASIS employs a parallel, adaptive hyperspectral method for real-time scene characterization, data reduction, background suppression, and target recognition. The use of ORASIS is essential for management of the massive amounts of data expected from the NEMO HSI system, and for development of Naval products. Specific Naval products include bathymetry, water clarity, bottom type, atmospheric visibility, bioluminescence, beach characterization, under-water hazards, total column atmospheric water vapor, and detection and mapping of sub-visible cirrus. Demonstrations of timely downlinks of real-time hyperspectral imagery data to the Naval warfighter are also being developed. The NEMO satellite is planned for launch in mid-2000 followed by an operational period of 3 to 5 years.     

Hyperspectral imaging—An advanced instrument concept for the EnMAP mission (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Programme)

In the upcoming generation of satellite sensors, hyperspectral instruments will play a significant role. This payload type is considered world-wide within different future planning.Our team has now successfully finalized the Phase B study for the advanced hyperspectral mission EnMAP (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Programme), Germans next optical satellite being scheduled for launch in 2012. GFZ in Potsdam has the scientific lead on EnMAP, Kayser-Threde in Munich is the industrial prime.The EnMAP instrument provides over 240 continuous spectral bands in the wavelength range between 420 and 2450 nm with a ground resolution of 30 m×30 m. Thus, the broad science and application community can draw from an extensive and highly resolved pool of information supporting the modeling and optimization process on their results. The performance of the hyperspectral instrument allows for a detailed monitoring, characterization and parameter extraction of rock/soil targets, vegetation, and inland and coastal waters on a global scale supporting a wide variety of applications in agriculture, forestry, water management and geology. The operation of an airborne system (ARES) as an element in the HGF hyperspectral network and the ongoing evolution concerning data handling and extraction procedures, will support the later inclusion process of EnMAP into the growing scientist and user communities.     

The applications of lower power satellites for direct television broadcasting

The use of 12 GHz satellites for TV broadcasting directly to individual homes and small communities has been the subject of analysis and design study by groups in many countries. Implementation of the concept has been slow to follow because of the high satellite transmitter powers of from 100 to 450 W that have usually been determined to be necessary. Accumulated experience in Canada with 12 GHz operation and the evolution of technology are leading to changes in the concept of direct broadcasting such that lower power satellites may be capable of meeting the requirements.

Hermes, the Canadian/U.S. 12/14 GHz Communications Technology Satellite, has been in use for over 3 years in a program of experiments and measurements. This program has included an extensive six month experiment in direct broadcasting to 7 small communities. Experience with Hermes has shown that the signal strength is stable over long periods of time and that in Canada, significant precipitation attenuation at 12 GHz is of relatively short duration and typically occurs only during certain seasons. Operation with low propagation margins is feasible if some picture degradation and some outages at these times are acceptable. The frequency and duration of occurrence of outages can be controlled by the Earth station G/T which is cost sensitive. An individual may choose to use a low cost system with a small antenna and accept a degraded picture and outages at some times. A small community may choose to pay more for a larger antenna and lower noise receiver to achieve better performance.

Developments in technology are reducing the noise figure of mass-producible receivers from more than 6 dB to as low as 4 dB. Another technology contribution is the use of reduced bandwidth and other signal processing techniques in low-cost receivers. While use of such techniques may introduce distortions that would be unacceptable in rebroadcasting systems, there is little impact for individual and community reception. Use of both technologies reduce the required satellite EIRP or ground terminal G/T.

A field trial was begun in April 1979 to test these concepts for use in television program delivery. One hundred Earth stations capable of being tuned across a 500 MHz band and having antennas with diameters of either 1.2 m or 1.8 m are being installed for a test in Canada to receive TV signals from the 20 W transponders of ANIK-B (peak EIRP of 51 dBw) on an experimental basis. The acceptability of the video signals and the technical performance of the low-cost terminals in the bands of non-technical users are being evaluated.

The paper will summarize the concept of TV broadcasting with lower power satellites and describe the results to date of the ANIK-B field trials.     

Multispectral remote sensing of aerosols

Aerosols are common atmospheric constituents that occur both naturally (clouds, sea spray, dust, smoke, and volcanic emissions) and artificially (smog, smoke, certain hazes, detonation products, and industrial emissions). Some, like the great dust bowl storms in the U.S. in the 1930s, are a combination of natural and manmade agents. Most aerosols are difficult to model because they are composed of small, non-spherical particles whose optical constants and particle sizes are poorly known. Spectroscopic observations of aerosols in the thermal infrared atmospheric window between 8 and 13.5 μm offer the opportunity to detect aerosols both day and night down to very low column densities. Such observations can also identify the gross chemical composition of the particles and, in some cases, the actual sizes and shapes. In this paper, we discuss thermal i.r. observations of three types of aerosols: satellite measurements of volcanic dust, ground-based observations of airborne desert soil and both ground- and space-based measurements of cirrus clouds.     

RADAR “SAIL” satellite concept

The Radar SAIL concept is based on the use of a rectangular antenna lying in the dawn-dusk orbital plane with the length (along speed vector) smaller than the height. Such geometry makes it possible to place the solar cells on the back of the antenna, to use gravity gradient stabilisation, and to implement multipath-free GPS interferometric measurement of the antenna deformation thus allowing structural relaxation. Less obviously, the geometry favours the RADAR design too, by allowing grating lobes and therefore a lower density of built-in electronic in the active antenna. The antenna can be thin and packed for launch inside a cylinder-shaped bus having pyrotechnic doors for the antenna deployement and bearing the rest of the payload and the service equipment. With respect to a standard design of performant missions, cost savings come from the bus, whose functions (AOCS, power supply) are simplified, from the launch since the mass budget and the stowing configuration become compatible with medium size rockets (LLV2/3, DELTA-LITE, LM-4.), and from the active antenna built-in electronics.

The RADAR SAIL concept is all the more cost effective when the mission requires a large, high and short antenna, i.e. high resolution (<5m), low frequency band (L or S or even P), high revisiting, multiple frequencies. Mission implementation and funding can be favored by the new capability to share the satellite between autonomous regional operators. Combined with ground DBF (digital beam forming) technique, the concept allows extremely simple and low cost missions providing a fixed wide swath (10 to 15 m resolution within 500km to 1000 km swath) for systematic surveillance or monitoring.     

Small spacecraft “UNISAT” launched by the “start-1” launcher

The preliminary estimations show that the contemporary level of electronic and information engineering makes it possible to create a small s/c of 150–200 kg mass capable to solve both the problems of Earth remote sensing and many other applied and scientific problems orbiting the planets at 500–1000 km. In accordance with the fundamental criterion for choosing parameters of small multipurpose spacecraft the small UNISAT s/c has been created on the basis of a unified space platform. The design provides for s/c energetic, thermal and space-saving parameters satisfying the conditions for accommodation of various-purpose payload and a possibility of using relatively inexpensive and light launchers like “Start-1” mobile launch complexes. Space platform mass is 100–120 kg; permissible payloads (PL) mass is 40–80 kg; maximal average power consumption of the payload is up to 60 W; three-axes orientation accuracy up to 0.001 deg./s; s/c lifetime is not less than 3–5 years.     

“资源三号”卫星遥感技术

"资源三号"(ZY-3)卫星是中国自行研制的民用高分辨率光学传输型立体测绘卫星,于2012年1月9日在太原卫星发射中心使用CZ-4B运载火箭发射升空。卫星可提供3.5m分辨率立体影像,2.1m全色/5.8m多光谱平面影像,可用于1∶50 000立体测图及更大比例尺基础地理信息产品的生产和更新。文章重点介绍了ZY-3卫星定位精度高和内方位元素稳定性强等任务特点以及内方位元素高稳定性的立体测绘相机、高速率双圆极化复用数据传输技术、角秒级定姿精度等技术创新点,简要介绍了在轨评价及应用情况,为后续测绘卫星提供参考。     

Future earth observation missions for oceanographic applications: Indian perspectives

Significant progress has been achieved in India in demonstrating the utility of remote sensing data for various oceanographic applications during the last one decade. Among these, techniques have been developed for retrieval of ocean surface waves, winds, wave forecast model, internal waves, sea surface temperature and chlorophyll pigments. Encouraged from these results as well as for meeting the specific and increasing data requirements on an assured basis by oceanographers, India is making concerted efforts for developing and launching state-of-the-art indigenous satellites for ocean applications in the coming years.

The first in the series of ocean satellites planned for launch is Oceansat-1 (IRS-P4) by early 1999. Oceansat-1 carries on-board an Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) and a Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR). OCM will have 8 narrow spectral bands operating in visible and near- infrared bands (402–885 nm) with a spatial resolution of 360 m and swath of 1420 km. The MSMR with its all weather capability is configured to have measurements at 4 frequencies viz., 6.6, 10.65, 18 & 21 GHz in dual polarisation mode with a spatial resolution of 120, 80, 40 & 40 km, respectively with an overall swath of 1360 km. The Oceansat-1 with repetitivity of once in two days will provide global data for retrieval of various oceanographic and meteorological parameters such as chlorophyll (primary productivity), sea surface temperature and wind speed, besides a host of other parameters of relevance to meteorology.

A full fledged satellite for ocean applications known as Oceansat-2 (IRS-P7) is also planned for launch during 2002. This satellite with payload mix of microwave (Scatterometer, Altimeter & Passive Microwave Radiometer), Thermal (TIR) and Optical (OCM) sensors, will provide greater in-sight into the global understanding of ocean dynamics/resources. This mission is expected to provide a complete set of oceanographic measurements, which are useful for providing operational oceanographic services.

Efforts are also on towards development of missions having multi-frequency, multipolarisation and multi-look angle microwave payloads including Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and advanced millimeter wave sounders, besides development of imaging spectrometers by 2005.

A well-knit plan has been initiated in India for utilisation of planned Oceansat data. Important efforts initiated in this direction include SATellite Coastal and Oceanographic Research and Ocean Information Services, which are being carried out on an integrated basis aiming at providing services to the down stream users. The paper highlights these efforts in India towards providing an operational ocean information services in the coming years.     

Readaptation of the vestibuloocular reflex to 1g-condition in immature lower vertebrates (Xenopus laevis) after micro- or hypergravity exposure

The effects of altered gravitational conditions (AGC) on the development of the static vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and readaptation to 1g were investigated in the amphibian Xenopus laevis. Tadpoles were exposed to microgravity (μg) during the German Space Mission D-2 for 10 days, using the STATEX closed survival system, or to 3g for 9 days during earth-bound experiments. At the beginning of AGC, the tadpoles had not yet developed the static VOR.

The main results were: (i) Tadpoles with ug- or 3g-experience had a lower gain of the static VOR than the 1g-controls during the 2nd and 5th post-AGC days, (ii) Readaptation to response levels of 1g-reared controls usually occurred during the following weeks, except in slowly developing tadpoles with 3g-experience. Readaptation was less pronounced if, during the acute VOR test, tadpoles were rolled from the inclined to the normal posture than in the opposite test situation.

It is postulated that (i) gravity is necessarily involved in the development of the static VOR, but only during a period including the time before onset of the first behavioural response; and (ii) readaptation which is superimposed by the processes of VOR development depends on many factors including the velocity of development, the actual excitation level of the vestibular systems and the neuroplastic properties of its specific pathways.     

大气环境监测卫星紫外高光谱大气成分探测仪技术发展及应用

大气环境监测卫星是我国民用空间基础设施中长期发展规划中的科研卫星。本文介绍了搭载于该卫星的新一代紫外高光谱大气成分探测仪，通过发展紫外高光谱大幅宽高分辨超光谱成像技术，使紫外谱段高光谱大气观测空间分辨率提升一倍，大幅提升气态污染物监测能力，取得良好的应用效果。     

The loss of stability in ground based experiments in liquid bridges

In this study our primary goal is to investigate the loss of stability of the steady convection in deformable liquid bridges. Definitely, the deformation plays an important role in the transition process from the steady axi-symmetric 2-D basic state to the 3-D periodical one. As it was shown experimentally by many researchers, the critical Marangoni number is very sensitive to the volume of liquid.

It seems to be proved^1–4, that the critical wave number for high Prandtl fluids (for example, silicone oil of different viscosities. Pr > 50) is m = 1 for aspect ratios Γ = height/radius ≥ 1.0 regardless of the free surface shape. But the data from our last experiments show, that by changing surrounding conditions around the liquid bridge we can change the critical wave number. Particularly, by placing the liquid bridge of diameter 2r = 6mm into another cylindrical volume of the diameter 2R = 12mm kept at constant temperature, the critical mode is switched from m = 1 to m = 2.     

The pharao project: Towards a space clock using cold cs atoms

For several years, the “BNM-Laboratoire Primaire du Temps et des Fréquences” has worked on a cold atom frequency standard. With a cesium atomic fountain a resonance line width of 700 mHz has been obtained leading to a short-term stability of 2 × 10⁻¹³ τ^−1/2 down to 2 × 10⁻¹⁵ at 10⁴ s. A first evaluation of the fountain accuracy has been performed resulting in an accuracy of 3 × 10⁻¹⁵, three times better than previously achieved with thermal beams frequency standards. In the atomic fountain, gravity limits the interaction time to ˜1 s, hence the resonance line width to ˜0.5 Hz. A factor of 10 reduction in the line width could be obtained in a micro-gravity environment. The “Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales” (the French space agency), the “BNM-Laboratoire Primaire du Temps et des Fréquences”, the “Laboratoire de l'Horloge Atomique” and the “Laboratoire Kastler Brossel” have set up a collaboration to investigate a space frequency standard using cold atoms: the PHARAO project. A microgravity prototype has been constructed and operated first in the reduced gravity of aircraft parabolic flights in May 1997. It is designed as a transportable frequency standard. The PHARAO frequency standard could be a key element in future space missions in fundamental physics such as SORT (solar orbit relativity test), detection of gravitational waves, or for the realization of a global time scale and a new generation of positioning system.     

Le silence éternel de ces espaces infinis?

During the last 40 years — the merest blip in world history — talk about Homo astronauticus has signalled a growing awareness that the passengers on planet Earth can, if they want, take off for other destinations. If the scale of past advances is a satisfactory measure of future possibilities, then the wish will be father of the achievement.