Galaxy clusters: The missing mass in stars

In galaxy clusters, the iron mass contained in the gas seems proportional to the virial mass. We proposed that this virial mass is made of stars and/or star remnants which produced the iron in the past. Here we examine the dynamical behaviour of clusters in which the bulk of the missing mass is made of such objects. We show that the relaxation due to distant encounters between galaxies and these background objects permit to explain the observed relationships between the central galaxy densities and both the total optical luminosities and the galaxy mean velocities.     

Thermodynamical Properties of the ICM from Hydrodynamical Simulations

Modern hydrodynamical simulations offer nowadays a powerful means to trace the evolution of the X-ray properties of the intra-cluster medium (ICM) during the cosmological history of the hierarchical build up of galaxy clusters. In this paper we review the current status of these simulations and how their predictions fare in reproducing the most recent X-ray observations of clusters. After briefly discussing the shortcomings of the self-similar model, based on assuming that gravity only drives the evolution of the ICM, we discuss how the processes of gas cooling and non-gravitational heating are expected to bring model predictions into better agreement with observational data. We then present results from the hydrodynamical simulations, performed by different groups, and how they compare with observational data. As terms of comparison, we use X-ray scaling relations between mass, luminosity, temperature and pressure, as well as the profiles of temperature and entropy. The results of this comparison can be summarised as follows: (a) simulations, which include gas cooling, star formation and supernova feedback, are generally successful in reproducing the X-ray properties of the ICM outside the core regions; (b) simulations generally fail in reproducing the observed “cool core” structure, in that they have serious difficulties in regulating overcooling, thereby producing steep negative central temperature profiles. This discrepancy calls for the need of introducing other physical processes, such as energy feedback from active galactic nuclei, which should compensate the radiative losses of the gas with high density, low entropy and short cooling time, which is observed to reside in the innermost regions of galaxy clusters.     

用于燃气流量可调固冲发动机的贫氧推进剂

在分析了固体火箭冲压发动机的高度特性、壅塞式和非壅塞式固体火箭冲压发动机性能调节特性的基础上, 提出了燃气流量可以调节的燃气发生器, 尤其是非壅塞式固体火箭冲压发动机对贫氧推进剂的特殊要求。分析结果表明： 非壅塞式固体火箭冲压发动机要求贫氧推进剂具有高的燃速压强指数、低的可燃极限和足够好的燃烧稳定性。探讨了贫氧推进剂性能调节的途径。     

富氢燃气旋转爆轰波传播特性实验研究

为研究富氢燃气旋转爆轰波传播特性,利用氢气与氧气预燃烧产生的富氢燃气作为燃料,空气为氧化剂,开展了旋转爆轰实验研究。对富氢燃气旋转爆轰压力变化、时频特性及传播速度等参数进行了分析,研究了不同传播模态下富氢燃气旋转爆轰波传播特性。研究表明：本文实验条件下,富氢燃气与空气旋转爆轰的传播模态主要受当量比影响,当量比高于1.06时呈现单波模态,随着当量比减小,旋转爆轰波呈现单波-双波过渡模态,即同一工况下,单波模态和双波模态交替出现,当量比减小到0.68左右时,基本呈现复杂的双波模态;在270 g/s的空气流量下,当量比增大,旋转爆轰波在环形燃烧室内的传播速度随之提高,但当量比到达临界点以后,传播速度提高不明显;在相同当量比下,当空气流量增大到370 g/s 时,旋转爆轰波的传播速度会进一步提高;空气流量越大,临界点对应的当量比越低,其中270 g/s空气流量对应临界当量比为1.32,370 g/s空气流量对应临界当量比1.16;达到临界当量比以后,传播速度受当量比和空气流量影响不大。     

The nonthermal energy content and gamma ray emission of starburst galaxies and clusters of galaxies

The nonthermal particle production in contemporary starburst galaxies and in galaxy clusters is estimated from the Supernova rate, the iron content, and an evaluation of the dynamical processes which characterize these objects. The primary energy derives from SN explosions of massive stars. The nonthermal energy is transformed by various secondary processes, like acceleration of particles by Supernova Remnants as well as diffusion and/or convection in galactic winds. If convection dominates, the energy spectrum of nonthermal particles will remain hard. At greater distances from the galaxy almost the entire enthalpy of thermal gas and Cosmic Rays will be converted into wind kinetic energy, implying a fatal adiabatic energy loss for the nonthermal component. If this wind is strong enough then it will end in a strong termination shock, producing a new generation of nonthermal particles which are subsequently released without significant adiabatic losses into the external medium. In clusters of galaxies this should only be the case for early type galaxies, in agreement with observations. Clusters should also accumulate their nonthermal component over their entire history and energize it by gravitational contraction. The pion decay -ray fluxes of nearby contemporary starburst galaxies is quite small. However rich clusters should be extended sources of very high energy -rays, detectable by the next generation of systems of air Cherenkov telescopes. Such observations will provide an independent empirical method to investigate these objects and their cosmological history.     

Clusters of Galaxies: Setting the Stage

Clusters of galaxies are self-gravitating systems of mass ∼10¹⁴–10¹⁵ h ⁻¹ M_⊙ and size ∼1–3h ⁻¹ Mpc. Their mass budget consists of dark matter (∼80%, on average), hot diffuse intracluster plasma (≲20%) and a small fraction of stars, dust, and cold gas, mostly locked in galaxies. In most clusters, scaling relations between their properties, like mass, galaxy velocity dispersion, X-ray luminosity and temperature, testify that the cluster components are in approximate dynamical equilibrium within the cluster gravitational potential well. However, spatially inhomogeneous thermal and non-thermal emission of the intracluster medium (ICM), observed in some clusters in the X-ray and radio bands, and the kinematic and morphological segregation of galaxies are a signature of non-gravitational processes, ongoing cluster merging and interactions. Both the fraction of clusters with these features, and the correlation between the dynamical and morphological properties of irregular clusters and the surrounding large-scale structure increase with redshift. In the current bottom-up scenario for the formation of cosmic structure, where tiny fluctuations of the otherwise homogeneous primordial density field are amplified by gravity, clusters are the most massive nodes of the filamentary large-scale structure of the cosmic web and form by anisotropic and episodic accretion of mass, in agreement with most of the observational evidence. In this model of the universe dominated by cold dark matter, at the present time most baryons are expected to be in a diffuse component rather than in stars and galaxies; moreover, ∼50% of this diffuse component has temperature ∼0.01–1 keV and permeates the filamentary distribution of the dark matter. The temperature of this Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium (WHIM) increases with the local density and its search in the outer regions of clusters and lower density regions has been the quest of much recent observational effort. Over the last thirty years, an impressive coherent picture of the formation and evolution of cosmic structures has emerged from the intense interplay between observations, theory and numerical experiments. Future efforts will continue to test whether this picture keeps being valid, needs corrections or suffers dramatic failures in its predictive power.     

The x-ray cluster baryon crisis

Nucleosynthesis in the standard hot big bang cosmology offers a successful account of the production of the light nuclides during the early evolution of the Universe. Consistency among the predicted and observed abundances of D,³He,⁴He and⁷Li leads to restrictive lower and upper bounds to the present density of nucleons. In particular, the upper bound ensures that nucleons cannot account for more than a small fraction (<0.06h ₅₀ ^–2 ) of the mass in a critical density (Einstein-de Sitter) Universe. In contrast, x-ray observations of rich clusters of galaxies suggest strongly that baryons (in hot gas) contribute a significant fraction of the total cluster mass (0.2h ₅₀ ^–3/2 ). If, indeed, clusters do provide a fair sample of the mass in the Universe, this crisis forces us to consider other ways of mitigating it, including the politically incorrect possibility that <1. The options, including magnetic or turbulent pressure, clumping and non-zero space curvature and/or cosmological constant, are discussed.     

Simulation of mass and heat transfer in liquid hydrogen tanks during pressurizing

In order to accurately predict the heat and mass transfer behaviors and analyze key factors affecting pressurization process in the hydrogen tank, a comprehensive 2 D axial symmetry Volume-Of-Fluid(VOF) model is established by Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD) method.The effects of phase change, turbulence and mass diffusion are included in the model and relationships between physical properties and temperature are also comprehensively considered. The phase change model is based on Hertz-Knudsen equation and the mass transfer time relaxation factor is determined by the NASA's experimental data. The mass diffusion model is included in gaseous helium pressurizing. The key factors including the inlet temperature, inlet mass flow rate, injector types and pressurizing gas kinds are quantitatively analyzed. Compared with the experiment, the simulation results show that the deviation of pressurizing gas mass consumption, condensing mass and ullage temperature are 3.0%, 7.5% and 4.0% respectively. The temperature stratification is existed along the axial direction in the surface liquid region and the ullage region, and the bulk liquid is in subcooled state during pressurizing. The location of phase change mainly appears near the vapor–liquid interface, and the mass transfer expressing as condensation or vaporization is mainly determined by the heat convection and molecular concentration near the vapor–liquid interface.The key factors show that increasing the inlet temperature and inlet mass flow rate could shorten the pressurizing time interval and save the pressurizing gas mass. The proportion of the total energy addition of the tank absorbed by the ullage region, the liquid region and the tank wall respectively is greatly influenced by the injector types and more heat transferred into the ullage would result in a faster pressure rising rate. Gaseous hydrogen pressurization has a higher efficiency than gaseous helium pressurization. The simulation results presented in this paper can be used as a reference for design optimization of the pressurization systems of cryogenic liquid launch vehicles so as to save the mass of pressurizing gases and shorten the pressurizing time interval.     

1.5级涡轮实验台前腔燃气入侵实验

在1.5级涡轮实验台上,针对不同转速和不同封严质量流量,分别采用稳态压力测量、瞬态压力测量和二氧化碳体积分数法对燃气入侵现象进行了实验研究,以确定不同工况下主流的动静叶相互作用对燃气入侵的影响以及入侵到盘腔的燃气在腔内与冷气的掺混过程.结果表明:静叶后的时均压力在周向有明显的周期分布,部分区域封严环外的压力高于腔内压力,且随着封严质量流量增加,这一区域逐渐缩小;动叶扫掠带来同频率的压力波动,对于燃气入侵的发生有着重要的影响;通过二氧化碳体积分数实验获得了最小封严质量流量,并得到在封严质量流量不足情况下燃气沿着静盘侧入侵盘腔的结果.      

强迫对流下硼颗粒燃烧特性影响因素研究

针对冲压发动机燃烧室内强迫对流下的硼颗粒燃烧特性展开了系统研究,考虑气相流动、扩散和表面单步有限化学反应动力作用,建立了强迫对流下硼颗粒燃烧过程的物理和数学模型;采用有限体积法求解含多组分反应流的二维轴对称Navier-Stokes方程,并验证了数值仿真方法的正确性。首先通过数值仿真研究了来流速度、颗粒半径、环境中氧气质量分数和环境压力等因素对硼颗粒燃烧特性的影响,并对其成因展开了详细分析。研究表明,在强迫对流作用下,硼颗粒总的燃烧质量流率和质量流率通量均随来流速度、颗粒半径、环境中氧气质量分数和环境压力的增加而增大。通过深入分析发现,强迫对流下硼颗粒的燃烧质量流率通量随着来流雷诺数的增加而增大。然后基于大量数值仿真结果,对相对静止气氛下的硼颗粒质量流率通量进行了修正,用于描述强迫对流下的硼颗粒燃烧特性。     

固体推进剂吸气式涡轮发动机控制规律与特性

建立了用于控制规律研究的单变量控制和双变量控制的固体推进剂吸气式涡轮火箭发动机(SPATR)特性计算模型,并编制了相应的计算程序。计算模型中采用了以试验数据为基础的燃烧室出口总温计算方法。利用程序分别计算了燃气流量不可调、燃气流量可调、尾喷管喉部面积可调以及燃气流量和尾喷管均可调的不同控制规律的SPATR发动机速度特性,并分析了其特点。对SPATR发动机进行了双变量控制规律设计,得到了相应的燃气流量调节比和尾喷管喉部面积调节比。计算结果表明,按照所设计的双变量控制规律进行控制,SPATR具有很宽的飞行包线和更好的推力特性和比冲特性。     

The Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer for the Huygens Probe

The Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) on the Huygens Probe will measure the chemical composition of Titan's atmosphere from 170 km altitude (∼1 hPa) to the surface (∼1500 hPa) and determine the isotope ratios of the major gaseous constituents. The GCMS will also analyze gas samples from the Aerosol Collector Pyrolyser (ACP) and may be able to investigate the composition (including isotope ratios) of several candidate surface materials. The GCMS is a quadrupole mass filter with a secondary electron multiplier detection system and a gas sampling system providing continuous direct atmospheric composition measurements and batch sampling through three gas chromatographic (GC) columns. The mass spectrometer employs five ion sources sequentially feeding the mass analyzer. Three ion sources serve as detectors for the GC columns and two are dedicated to direct atmosphere sampling and ACP gas sampling respectively. The instrument is also equipped with a chemical scrubber cell for noble gas analysis and a sample enrichment cell for selective measurement of high boiling point carbon containing constituents. The mass range is 2 to 141 Dalton and the nominal detection threshold is at a mixing ratio of 10^{− 8}. The data rate available from the Probe system is 885 bit/s. The weight of the instrument is 17.3 kg and the energy required for warm up and 150 minutes of operation is 110 Watt-hours. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

空间站太阳能蓄热/吸热器轻量化研究

为了降低太阳能热动力发电系统中关键部件吸热器的质量,在NASA2kW吸热器样机的基础上建立了吸热器的物理和传热过程及流阻的数学模型,编制了吸热器传热及质量计算的数值模拟程序,分析了结构参数和特性参数对质量的影响。结果表明,在一定的设计要求下,合理的选取工质传热管的直径和数目、能量转换单元的转速、压缩机入口温度和回热器回热度等参数,可以明显降低吸热器质量的影响,为吸热器的设计提供了理论依据。      

非线性数值模拟柱面气膜密封动态特性

针对气膜密封研究中密封气膜动态特性分析难点问题,采用非线性数值模拟法对柱面气膜密封系统的动态特性进行研究[D].建立了柱面气膜密封系统的动力学模型,给出了基于有限元数值方法的瞬态气体雷诺方程（含时间项）与系统动力学方程的耦合求解流程和方法,数值仿真给出了柱面密封环的中心轨迹图、确定了一定转速下的临界无量纲质量、不同密封环无量纲质量时等量位移扰动下系统的响应图,分析了密封环无量纲质量对系统稳定性的影响.结果表明:光滑柱面气膜密封系统存在临界无量纲质量,临界时系统受扰后处于半频涡动状态,随着密封环无量纲质量的增加,受扰后系统收敛时间变长,稳定性变差.      

热交换对喷气发动机过渡过程影响分析

给出一种用于估算气流与零部件间热交换对过渡过程影响的方法。利用该方法计算了某双轴涡扇发动机在加速过程中各主要零部件与气流间的热交换随加速时间的变化，各部件热交换对推力响应的影响；计算和分析了该发动机在相同供油规律下“冷”和“热”两种加速过程，估算了典型部件换热面积和质量对加速性的影响。计算结果的分析表明：高温部件与气流的热交换对喷气发动机的过渡过程有不容忽视的影响；相同供油规律下由于热交换使“冷”和“热”加速过程的差异十分显著，“冷”加速过程允许采用补偿供油改善加速性；零部件换热面积和质量的估算精度对加速性有一定的影响，但不显著。     

长微管道气体流动的近似解析解

对长微管道中压力驱动的气体流动，考虑到稀薄气体效应，给出了可压缩气体流动简化控制议程的近似解析解，得到了流动的速度分布、密度分布以及近似质量流量公式，分析了影响流量的因素。     

局部富油供油扩展燃烧室贫油点火熄火边界研究

介绍了燃烧室主燃区设计中熄火特性与综合性能间的折衷考虑,设计了火焰筒头部均匀供油和局部富油供油方案,并在全环试验燃烧室上进行了两种方案对燃烧室贫油点火熄火边界影响的对比试验,分析和总结了火焰筒头部局部富油设计方案的点火熄火规律。结果表明:局部富油设计可显著扩展燃烧室贫油点火熄火边界。      

新型非壅塞式固体火箭冲压发动机试验研究

建立了一种新型非壅塞燃气发生器固体火箭冲压发动机系统。一系列直连式实验证实,验证的镁铝中能贫氧推进剂在低压（≥０．５ＭＰａ）范围内可以稳定燃烧,燃气发生器的工作压强可以随冲压补燃室压强的改变而变化,因此贫氧推进剂燃速随之进行自适应调节,最终达到富燃烧气流量自主调节的目的。     

Observations of Extended Radio Emission in Clusters

We review observations of extended regions of radio emission in clusters; these include diffuse emission in ‘relics’, and the large central regions commonly referred to as ‘halos’. The spectral observations, as well as Faraday rotation measurements of background and cluster radio sources, provide the main evidence for large-scale intracluster magnetic fields and significant densities of relativistic electrons. Implications from these observations on acceleration mechanisms of these electrons are reviewed, including turbulent and shock acceleration, and also the origin of some of the electrons in collisions of relativistic protons by ambient protons in the (thermal) gas. Improved knowledge of non-thermal phenomena in clusters requires more extensive and detailed radio measurements; we briefly review prospects for future observations.