The UN space treaties and the common heritage principle

The Moon Treaty, adopted by the UN's Outer Space Committee by consensus in 1979, has never been ratified by the major space powers — although it is essentially only an elaboration of the non-controversial Outer-Space Treaty. The author discusses the international political and economic climate of the time to explain the West's apparent withdrawal into self-interest. The controversy over the exploitation of lunar resources is preventing agreement on the other, more important issues covered by the Moon Treaty. The author argues that the successful INMARSAT organization could serve as a model for cooperation in exploiting the Moon's resources. A greater degree of understanding, humility, realism and generosity is needed before the problems can be resolved.     

US national missile defence and international security: blessing or blight?

With the revival of the US national missile defence, there is a danger of jeopardising not only the existing arms control and disarmament process, but also some of the measures that are on the table in the United Nations for negotiations. Examples of these are the prevention of an arms race in outer space and the nuclear fissile materials cut-off agreement. In this paper, the missile defence issues are examined. It is suggested that, if the US builds a missile defence system that is allowed by the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty between the USA and Russia, it could achieve its goal of defending itself against a limited missile attack. With this kind of approach, it may be possible to save many of the long-standing bilateral and multilateral treaties and prevent the beginning of a new and much wider nuclear arms race.     

US—Soviet intergovernmental agreement on cooperative space activities : Should it be re-established?

Both political and scientific motives are involved in the possible re-establishment of the US-Soviet Intergovernmental Agreement on Space Cooperation. This article outlines the policy concerns which would have to be addressed in considering a new agreement, from issues of technology transfer and actual scientific benefits, to US political influence on Soviet policies. Some guidelines are offered for future cooperation, on the basis of past experience, and possible long-range cooperative projects are suggested.     

霍尔推力器振荡问题的研究综述

自前苏联1971年将霍尔推力器成功地应用以来,霍尔推力器以其优异的性能,在卫星 轨道保持和变轨运行过程中成为最佳动力装置之一,由于霍尔推力器自身工作原理所产生的 等离子体振荡,其频率从几十kHz到几GHz,包含推力器中各种物理现象、与推力器中粒子电 离、加速、传导等等离子体微观物理过程息息相关,一直是该领域的研究热点和焦点问题。 系统总结了各国主要研究机构对于霍尔推力器振荡问题的理论和实验研究成果,结合自 身对霍尔推力器等离子体振荡物理过程的认识,分析了目前尚待解决的振荡问题,对于进一 步深入研究霍尔推力器的等离子体振荡问题具有一定借鉴意义。     

载人航天器舱内辐射剂量监测技术综述

文章介绍了美国、苏联/俄罗斯载人航天器舱内辐射剂量监测技术及部分监测结果,分析了我国“神舟3号”和“神舟4号”飞船返回舱内的辐射剂量探测技术及结果,并在此基础上就我国载人航天器的辐射剂量探测方法提出若干建议。     

Satellite vulnerability: a post-Cold War issue?

The widely discussed use of US reconnaissance satellites during the Gulf War will strongly motivate future regional adversaries to seek ways of countering US space-based assets. The presumption that reconnaissance satellites can operate covertly is obsolete. Tracking US reconnaissance satellites can provide valuable support to a hostile country's concealment and deception programs. Iraq's ability to conceal both major weapons programs and many SCUD launchers is a warning of the serious consequences such programs can have. Space surveillance systems of the type likely to be acquired by Third World countries are inconspicuous and may well go undetected, while direct ascent ASAT rockets are within the reach of many countries. This article argues that fundamental reexamination of the functions and architecture of US overhead reconnaissance is needed, and should be done outside the traditional Cold War bureaucratic structures.     

The “peaceful purposes” principle in outer space and the Russia–China PPWT Proposal

Using the global commons for “peaceful purposes” is agreed upon among states in principle but disputed in substance. While non-militarization has been superceded by the doctrine of non-aggression, the latter, as a necessary rather than sufficient condition for “peaceful purposes”, is tested to its limit by the pressing issue of space weaponization. An international treaty to plug the gaps of the Outer Space Treaty should be negotiated. This would require the prohibition of both weapons in outer space and anti-satellite weapons on Earth. The Draft Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects, proposed by Russia and China at the Conference on Disarmament, is an effort in this direction. However, divided views are held on several issues arising from the draft treaty, e.g. the efficiency of the current regime of outer space law, definitions of “weapons in space” and “threat or use of force”, and verification. A primary reason for US opposition to the draft treaty are security concerns over its space assets. However, exercising the right of self-defense is excluded from the obligations of disarmament and this is explicitly affirmed in the draft treaty.     

非线性动力学理论及其在机械系统中应用的若干进展

非线性动力学的理论及其工程应用是非线性科学研究的前沿和热点，应用非线性动力学的理论揭示事物动态过程现象的本质和机理，进行自主性原始创新，具有十分重大的理论和应用价值，在科学与工程中具有广阔的应用前景。综述非线性动力学基础理论方面的近期研究成果及其在机械系统中应用的研究进展。理论研究方面主要涉及揭示非线性动力系统周期分岔解与系统结构参数之间关系的C—L方法、高余维分岔的普适分类、高余维非对称分岔的普适开折、约束分岔的分类、计算非线性自治系统正规形的直接方法、计算非线性非自治系统正规形的复内积平均法以及高维非线性系统的降维方法等。应用方面主要涉及大型旋转机械非线性转子系统的失稳机理、分岔解与混沌运动、故障诊断及其综合治理技术；冲击振动机械的稳定性、Hopf分岔、亚谐分岔、余维二分岔和混沌运动；大型共振筛的非线性振动及其动力学设计方法等。     

Third-party liability insurance and space launches

This article discusses a number of issues related to the US commercial expendable launch vehicle (ELV) industry and government's role in ensuring its competitiveness, particularly third-party liability insurance for space launches. The author finds that the space insurance industry has become a major constraint on the commercial development of space. The future implications are considered of US government involvement with the launch services industry, initially through providing third-party insurance itself. The author concludes that, for a stable commercial ELV industry, it will be necessary for the USA either to establish fair-trade agreements with other space-capable nations, or to maintain a significant government involvement to support the industry.     

US and Soviet planetary exploration The next step is Mars, together

Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev has proposed a joint US-Soviet programme to explore the planet Mars. The authors argue that there is considerable advantage to be gained from such a programme for both countries and for all nations on Earth. They trace the history of the US and Soviet space programmes and of cooperation between the two nations, focusing particularly on activities relating to Mars. Robotic Mars exploration is already technically possible and could take place in the 1990s, and a first step towards manned exploration could be the writing of a development and flight plan aiming for the first decade of the 21st century.     

Space and Soviet military planning

Most of the recent discussions concerning Soviet space activities focus on the new systems and emerging technologies, particularly those with military application. How the military capabilities of these systems and technologies will be used is equally important. Their employment will be guided by current Soviet thinking and policy concerning military actions in space. This policy has its origins in Soviet military doctrine which emphasizes offensive systems. Although the Soviet space programme denies having any military objectives, it is guided by a historical link with the Soviet military and directed by decisions made within the framework of Soviet doctrine. Additional insights into Soviet thinking concerning the militarization of space can be gained from recent treaties which the Soviets have signed concerning military space activities.     

Möglichkeiten und grenzen von mikrowellensystemen zur fernerkundung von satelliten

(Possibilities and Limitations of Microwave Systems for Satellite Remote Sensing)—Microwaves are applied in satellite remote sensing in both active, i.e. radar systems and in passive, i.e. microwave radiometer systems. The advantages and disadvantages of active and passive microwave systems in comparison to each other and to optical systems are discussed shortly. It becomes evident that radar has advantages over microwave radiometry due to its ranging and velocity-measurement capability, due to its SAR-capability with its extremely fine resolution and due to the fact that no major theoretical limitations exist for the obtainable measurement accuracy.The most important radar systems for Earth and ocean observations from satellites are altimeter, scatterometer and imaging radars with real or synthetic aperture. The physical and technical basics of these types of radar are presented together with some applications. Examples for remote sensing data and results obtained from different microwave remote sensing systems show the present state of the art and the present possibilities and limitations of microwave systems for satellite remote sensing.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984: Part I

This article examines the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These relate importantly to the development of anti-satellite satellites (ASATs) and ballistic missile defence systems (BMDs). Part I of the article examines the goal of ‘peaceful uses’ of outer space as elaborated in national policies and in international fora, the debate that has has taken place at the international level over the meaning and definition of peaceful purposes, legal manoeuvres, particularly in the UN, and US responses, and recent Soviet initiatives relating to space militarization. Part II will appear in the next issue, and will consider the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue on these questions and recent Presidential initiatives.     

Achieving GPS–Galileo interoperability: the challenges ahead

The enormous benefits of a worldwide accurate location system can only be achieved if GPS and Galileo can be made truly interoperable. The technical issues involved are relatively easy to deal with but the political and legal problems require far greater attention, with military issues and enactment of legislation the chief difficulties. These are discussed using examples, notably from road traffic law. Given that the US DoD is unlikely to cede control of GPS to the civil sector and design a new, separate system, the best solution might be to set aside part of GPS for purely civil purposes.     

Extraterrestrial environmental impact assessments – A foreseeable prerequisite for wise decisions regarding outer space exploration,research and development

Although existing international instruments such as the Outer Space Treaty and Moon Agreement generally express sentiments for minimizing missions' extraterrestrial environmental impacts, they tend to be limited in scope, vague and generally unenforceable. There is no formal structure for assessing how and to what extent we affect those environments, no opportunity for public participation, no uniform protocol for documenting and registering the effects of our actions and no requirement to mitigate adverse impacts or take them into consideration in the decision-making process. Except for precautions limiting forward biological contamination and issues related to Earth satellites, environmental impact analysis, when done at all, remains focused on how missions affect the Earth and near-Earth environments, not how our actions affect the Moon, Mars, Europa, comets and other potential destinations. Extraterrestrial environmental impacts are potentially counterproductive to future space exploration, exploitation and scientific investigations. Clear, consistent and effective international protocols guiding a process for assessing such impacts are warranted. While instruments such as the US National Environmental Policy Act provide legally tested and efficient regulatory models that can guide impact assessment here on Earth, statutory legal frameworks may not work as well in the international environment of outer space. A proposal for industry-driven standards and an environmental code of conduct based, in part, on best management practices are offered for consideration.     

国外深空探测器着陆缓冲系统的特点和应用

主要介绍国外月球和行星探测器的着陆缓冲系统的特点与应用。着陆缓冲系统的基本类型包括软着陆机构、气囊缓冲装置和空中悬吊机结构。其中：软着陆机构由着陆架（腿）、缓冲器和展开锁定机构组成,具有质量较大,结构较简单、可靠的特点,在美国“勘测者”、“阿波罗”、“梦神”和苏联月球号等着陆器中得到了应用;气囊缓冲装置由气体发生器、气囊组件,以及缩回与展开机构组成,具有质量小、包装容积小和着陆稳定性好的特点,在美国“火星探路者”、“火星探测巡视器”,苏联早期月球号着陆器,以及欧洲“贝皮一哥伦布”水星探测器中得到了应用;空中悬吊机结构由空中悬吊机及其推进系统等组成,具有着陆速度低、冲击小和安全可靠的特点,在美国“火星科学实验室”的好奇心号巡视器上得到了应用。     

Evolution of executive branch space policy making

This paper assesses the impacts that changes in the US presidency have had on the civilian space program during the post-Apollo period. It suggests that the White House has lost influence over space issues relative to other interested sectors. The primary factors causing this are a long-term shift to lower priority for these issues, and an inevitable widening of the scope of influence over this sector of activity. Key post-Apollo decisions are discussed for their substantive content and also for what they reveal about the extent to which the president chose to be involved. These findings have implications across all science and technology issue areas as the USA, in the aftermath of the Cold War, reexamines its post-World War II social contract with science.     

Stepping stones to the future: Achieving a sustainable lunar outpost

The current emphasis in the US and internationally on lunar robotic missions is generally viewed as a precursor to possible future human missions to the Moon. As initially framed, the implementation of high level policies such as the US Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) might have been limited to either human lunar sortie missions, or to the testing at the Moon of concepts-of-operations and systems for eventual human missions to Mars [White House, Vision for Space Exploration, Washington, DC, 14 January, 2004. [1]]. However, recently announced (December 2006) US goals go much further: these plans now place at the center of future US—and perhaps international—human spaceflight activities a long-term commitment to an outpost on the Moon.Based on available documents, a human lunar outpost could be emplaced as early as the 2020–2025 timeframe, and would involve numerous novel systems, new technologies and unique operations requirements. As such, substantial investments in research and development (R&D) will be necessary prior to, during, and following the deployment of such an outpost. It seems possible that such an outpost will be an international endeavor, not just the undertaking of a single country—and the US has actively courted partners in the VSE. However, critical questions remain concerning an international lunar outpost. What might such an outpost accomplish? To what extent will “sustainability” be built into the outpost? And, most importantly, what will be the outpost's life cycle cost (LCC)?This paper will explore these issues with a view toward informing key policy and program decisions that must be made during the next several years. The paper will (1) describe a high-level analytical model of a modest lunar outpost, (2) examine (using this model) the parametric characteristics of the outpost in terms of the three critical questions indicated above, and (3) present rough estimates of the relationships of outpost goals and “sustainability” to LCC. The paper will also consider possible outpost requirements for near-term investments in enabling research in light of experiences in past advanced technology programs.     

Eugen Sänger: Eminent space pioneer

In international literature on astronautics, three main space pioneers are mentioned: Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky, Robert H. Goddard and Hermann Oberth. There are other two space pioneers that are very rarely mentioned: Robert Esnault-Pelterie and Eugen Sänger. Pelterie is known particularly in Europe, and Sänger is mentioned in the second half of the 20th century normally only in connection with space shuttle flights.Taking a look at Sänger's work and heritage, it is obvious that he greatly influenced the development of astronautics in terms of purely theoretical dissertations on achievable limits of space research as well as in terms of technical approaches to achieving the short- and long-term goals of astronautics, and in terms of setting tasks for organizing mankind to achieve these goals. Sänger's book “The Technology of Rocket Flight” was the first study based not only on basic research, but also on the applied research that he conducted and the findings of which he published in various papers. Sänger was clearly connected with and influenced the development of two experimental research groups in the US in the 1930s, which resulted in two of the most significant companies in the US in the 1950s that manufactured liquid propellant rocket engines. Basic and applied research in the field of space planes resulted in construction of rocket planes such as the US space shuttle and Soviet Buran shuttle.Sänger's research on subsonic and supersonic ramjets in combination with a turbojet engine provided a basis for developing this promising propulsion for use in subsequent space planes designed for flights into low Earth orbits. His pioneering work on the photon rocket represents human achievements in reaching almost unimaginable limits of space research.By striving for a peaceful international approach to space research, Sänger participated in establishing the non-governmental organization IAF (International Astronautical Federation) and realized his idea that space research is a concern for all mankind. He was therefore appointed the first president of the IAF.The paper presents how Sänger influenced the development of rocket technology and astronautics, which definitely ranks him with the first three space pioneers.     

Perestroika and glasnost in the soviet space programme A personal view

For many years the world-famous Kettering Group of amateur satellite observers have confounded many more ‘official’ organization with their accucary in tracking Soviet space launches. In this article the group's founder, Geoffrey E. Perry, MBE, presents his personal perspective on current developments in the Soviet space programme. The USSR's increased openness about non-sensitive issues is to be welcomed, he concludes, but the Kettering Group has work to do yet.