Long-duration space mission regenerative life support.

The paper deals with the construction of physical/chemical life support systems of orbiting space station Mir and the Russian segment of the international space station (ISS). Based on experience gained in development and long-term operation of systems for water recovery and air revitalization balance and energy/mass characteristics of promising life support systems (LSS) are analyzed. Physical/chemical life support systems with regenerative systems updated as a result of the operation on the ISS may be used at an initial phase of manned interplanetary missions.     

Adaptive environmental control for optimal results during plant microgravity experiments

The SVET Space Greenhouse (SG)--the first and the only automated plant growth facility onboard the MIR Space Station in the period 1990-2000 was developed on a Russian-Bulgarian Project in the 80s. The aim was to study plant growth under microgravity in order to include plants as a link of future Biological Life Support Systems for the long-term manned space missions. An American developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS) was added to the existing SVET SG equipment in 1995 to monitor more environmental and physiological parameters. A lot of long-duration plant flight experiments were carried out in the SVET+GEMS. They led to significant results in the Fundamental Gravitational Biology field--second-generation wheat seeds were produced in the conditions of microgravity. The new International Space Station (ISS) will provide a perfect opportunity for conducting full life cycle plant experiments in microgravity, including measurement of more vital plant parameters, during the next 15-20 years. Nowadays plant growth facilities for scientific research based on the SVET SG functional principles are developed for the ISS by different countries (Russia, USA, Italy, Japan, etc.). A new Concept for an advanced SVET-3 Space Greenhouse for the ISS, based on the Bulgarian experience and "know-how" is described. The absolute and differential plant chamber air parameters and some plant physiological parameters are measured and processed in real time. Using the transpiration and photosynthesis measurement data the Control Unit evaluates the plant status and performs adaptive environmental control in order to provide the most favorable conditions for plant growth at every stage of plant development in experiments. A conceptual block-diagram of the SVET-3 SG is presented.     

Testing and evaluation of a method for locating potentially hazardous sites of eventual microdestruction and detecting marks of ISS RS hull leakage

In 2008, two experiments – BAR and EXPERT – were performed on the Russian segment (ISS RS) during ISS missions 16 and 17 using diagnostic equipment BAR. The experiments were aimed to enhance ISS safety by proposing means and methods of detecting leaks due to many factors including microdestruction of pressurized modules of the vehicle. The BAR experiment was designed to assess the ultraviolet background in 56 potentially dangerous locations identified by RS ISS designers and engineers. The method for locating sites carrying the risk of microdestruction of pressurized structure was verified. The study showed that the rate of microdestruction is highly affected by level of ultrasound vibrations caused by onboard equipment. The ultrasound measurements in 200 RS ISS sites were performed within the BAR experiment. The method consists of looking for surfaces with atmospheric condensate in the areas of increased levels of ultrasound vibrations. Twenty six sites were added to the nomenclature of potentially risky sites to be monitored on the regular basis. Some of these sites were contaminated by fungi and bacteria.     

发展X-37B空间飞机的背后动因分析

文章通过对X-37B飞行器的飞行试验任务分析,指出了X-37B飞行器不是空天飞机,也不是全球快速打击平台,而是一种低成本太空进入能力的飞行验证器,它的作用定位在空间而不是在空中。通过飞行试验和验证试验,旨在打造一个可重复使用的轨道转移运载器。将美国2010年航天战略的重大调整、国际空间站的运行延期和航天飞机退役等事件结合起来,对X-37B发展的背后动因进行分析,有助于了解美国航天发展的未来趋势。经过动因的详尽分析,指出要特别关注美国航天战略调整的两个重心转向,尤其是两个转向背后的动机。如何正确地认识国际空间站的作用定位,对于审视载人航天的未来发展有重要意义。美国航天战略的调整使载人航天的重心回到近地轨道上。基于中国目前的能力现实,建议中国的载人航天重心放在地球轨道上,做好各种能力的建设,并利用这些能力把地球轨道上的事做得更好。     

The European Astronaut Centre prepares for International Space Station operations

The European Space Agency (ESA) contribution to the International Space Station (ISS) goes much beyond the delivery of hardware like the Columbus Laboratory, its payloads and the Automated Transfer Vehicles. ESA Astronauts will be members of the ISS crew. ESA, according to its commitments as ISS international partner, will be responsible to provide training on its elements and payloads to all ISS crewmembers and medical support for ESA astronauts. The European Astronaut Centre (EAC) in Cologne has developed over more than a decade into the centre of expertise for manned space activities within ESA by contributing to a number of important co-operative spaceflight missions. This role will be significantly extended for ISS manned operations. Apart from its support to ESA astronauts and their onboard operations, EAC will have a key role in training all ISS astronauts on ESA elements and payloads. The medical support of ISS crew, in particular of ESA astronauts has already started. This paper provides an overview on status and further plans in building up this homebase function for ESA astronauts and on the preparation towards Training Readiness for ISS crew training at EAC, Cologne. Copyright 2001 by the European Space Agency. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission. Released to IAF/IAA/AIAA to publish in all forms.     

Space radiation concerns for manned exploration.

Spaceflight exposes astronaut crews to natural ionizing radiation. To date, exposures in manned spaceflight have been well below the career limits recommended to NASA by the National Council of Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). This will not be the case for long-duration exploratory class missions. Additionally. International Space Station (ISS) crews will receive higher doses than earlier flight crews. Uncertainties in our understanding of long-term bioeffects, as well as updated analyses of the Hiroshima. Nagasaki and Chernobyl tumorigenesis data, have prompted the NCRP to recommend further reductions by 30-50% for career dose limit guidelines. Intelligent spacecraft design and material selection can provide a shielding strategy capable of maintaining crew exposures within recommended guidelines. Current studies on newer radioprotectant compounds may find combinations of agents which further diminish the risk of radiation-induced bioeffects to the crew.     

Effect of Multi-wall System Composition on Survivability for Spacecraft Impacted by Orbital Debris

Long-duration spacecraft in low earth orbit such as the International Space Station (ISS) are highly susceptible to high-speed impacts by pieces of debris from past earth-orbiting missions. Among the hazards that accompany the penetration of a pressurized manned spacecraft are critical crack propagation in the module wall, crew hypoxia, and uncontrolled thrust due to air rushing out of the module wall hole. A Monte Carlo simulation tool was used to determine the effect of spacecraft wall construction on the survivability of ISS modules and crew following an orbital debris penetration. The simulation results indicate that enhanced shield wall designs (i.e., multi-wall systems with heavier inner bumpers) always lead to higher overall survivability of the station and crew due to an overwhelming decrease in likelihood of module penetration. The results of the simulations also indicate that changes in crew operations, equipment locations, and operation procedures can significantly reduce the likelihood of crew or station loss following an orbital debris penetration.     

Survival of dormant organisms after long-term exposure to the space environment

The RF SRC—Institute of Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, developed Biorisk hardware to study the effects of long-term exposure of dormant forms of various organisms to outer space and used it to complete a series of experiments on the Russian Module (RM) of the International Space Station (ISS).The experiments were performed using prokaryotes (Bacillus bacteria) and eukaryotes (Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Cladosporium fungi), as well as spores, dormant forms of higher plants, insects, lower crustaceans, and vertebrates. The biological samples were housed in two containers that were exposed to outer space for 13 or 18 months. The results of the 18-month experiment showed that, in spite of harsher temperature than in the first study, most specimens remained viable.These experiments provided evidence that not only bacterial and fungal spores but also dormant forms of organisms that reached higher levels of evolutionary development had the capability to survive a long-term exposure to outer space. This observation suggests that they can be transferred on outer walls of space platforms during interplanetary missions.     

The german microgravity program: Objectives and present status

Within the space program of the Federal Republic of Germany the microgravity program in connection with the utilization of SPACELAB constitutes a central task which determines the long-term program concepts and also their relation to German participation in future ESA programs.The scientific preparatory programs under way for some years now have made further progress. Extensive flight experience and valuable scientific results were obtained on the basis of successful rocket pre-programs. The present paper describes the process in which scientific and organisational priorities are being defined for the planning and execution of the experimental programs.In order to obtain a sufficient number of flight opportunities, payloads for SPACE SHUTTLE missions, in particular under the NASA GAS Program, as well as experimental equipment such as the materials laboratory (MSDR) for FSLP are being developed. The German program focuses on preparing a German SPACELAB mission D1 planned for 1985, which is intended to verify the applicability and efficiency of manned research laboratories for industry and the scientific community. A second emphasis is on preparing the use of SHUTTLE-supported re-usable space platforms.     

载人航天器密封舱微生物防控技术体系框架研究概述

载人航天器密封舱内环境适宜航天员工作和生活,同时也给空间微生物提供了生长繁殖的有利条件。而空间微重力和电磁辐射等环境会加大空间微生物对材料的腐蚀能力。因此,必须对空间微生物防控技术进行体系化研究。文章从空间微生物菌种的采集和鉴定、空间环境下微生物对航天材料的腐蚀机理、载人航天材料抗菌涂层选择以及微生物控制技术等方面对微生物防控体系进行阐述,可以作为开展载人航天器空间微生物防控技术研究的参考。     

Radiobiological risk and single event effects during manned space flights

Radiation hazard during previous manned space flights was not a critical problem as seen from monitoring on board MIR and the SHUTTLE. Future Martian and Lunar missions as well as flights on inclined or high altitude orbits around the Earth can be exposed to a large radiobiological risk and critical reliability losses can be expected, due to Single Event Effects on VLSI devices.

The mains characteristics of these hazards and some counter-measures to be provided for are given.     

空间站水循环处理系统中微生物的检测技术

如何控制空间站水循环处理系统的微生物数量对于保证航天员的饮用水和生活用水十分重要。微生物数量超标会对航天员身体健康产生影响,某些硫酸盐还原菌也会附着在管道设备上并发生化学反应,产生的H₂S气体会腐蚀设备。控制水循环处理系统的微生物有地面控制、选用特殊材料和在轨杀菌共3个方面。2003年NASA给出了空间站中微生物控制的一系列要求。文章中提出了两种微生物检测方法:ATP生物发光法和比色固相萃取法测碘和银离子数量的方法,通过比较两者的优劣以及多方面的探究,最后,确定通过监测碘和银离子的数量来控制微生物数量更加方便有效。     

载人航天器的再入与回收

文中主要概述了美国载人飞船回收技术的发展,介绍了保证载人飞船安全返回着陆的方法、采用的回收控制技术、地面对再入返回段的测控支持、载人飞船的回收作业、载人飞船的应急返回和回收救援等技术问题。     

Manned missions to Mars: Minimizing risks of failure

Some major risks-of-failure issues for the future manned missions to Mars are discussed, with an objective to address criteria for making such missions possible, successful, safe and cost-effective. The following astronautical and instrumentation-and-equipment-reliability related aspects of the missions are considered: redundancies and backup strategies; costs; assessed probability of failure as a suitable reliability criterion for the instrumentation (equipment); probabilistic assessment of the likelihood of the mission success and safety. It is concluded that parametric risk modeling is a must for a risk-driven decision-making process.     

Carbon dioxide removal system for closed loop atmosphere revitalization,candidate sorbents screening and test results

Due to the difficulty and expense it costs to resupply manned-spacecraft habitats, a goal is to create a closed loop atmosphere revitalization system, in which precious commodities such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water are continuously recycled. Our aim is to test other sorbents for their capacity for future spacecraft missions, such as on the Orion spacecraft, or possibly lunar or Mars mission habitats to see if they would be better than the zeolite sorbents on the 4-bed molecular sieve. Some of the materials being tested are currently used for other industry applications. Studying these sorbents for their specific spacecraft application is different from that for applications on earth because in space, there are certain power, mass, and volume limitations that are not as critical on Earth. In manned-spaceflight missions, the sorbents are exposed to a much lower volume fraction of CO₂ (0.6% volume CO₂) than on Earth.LiLSX was tested for its CO₂ capacity in an atmosphere like that of the ISS. Breakthrough tests were run to establish the capacities of these materials at a partial pressure of CO₂ that is seen on the ISS. This paper discusses experimental results from benchmark materials, such as results previously obtained from tests on Grade 522, and the forementioned candidate materials for the Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) system.     

International Space Station as a base camp for exploration beyond low Earth orbit

The idea for using the International Space Station (ISS) as a platform for exploration has matured in the past few years and the concept continues to gain momentum. ISS provides a robust infrastructure which can be used to test systems and capabilities needed for missions to the Moon, Mars, asteroids and other potential destinations. International cooperation is a critical enabler and ISS has already demonstrated successful management of a large multi-national technical endeavor. Systems and resources needed for expeditions can be aggregated and thoroughly tested at ISS before departure thus providing wide operational flexibility and the best assurance of mission success. A small part of ISS called an Exploration Platform (ISS-EP) can be placed in cislunar space providing immediate benefits and flexibility for future exploration missions.We will show how ISS and the ISS-EP can be used to reduce risk and improve the operational flexibility for missions beyond low Earth orbit. Life support systems and other technologies developed for ISS can be evolved and adapted to the ISS-EP and other exploration spacecrafts. New technology, such as electric propulsion and advanced life support systems can be tested and proven at ISS as part of an incremental development program. Commercial companies who are introducing transportation and other services will benefit with opportunities to contribute to the mission since ISS will serve as a focal point for the commercialization of low earth orbit services. Finally, we will show how the use of ISS provides immediate benefits to the scientific community because its capabilities are available today and certain critical aspects of exploration missions can be simulated.     

Psychological adaptation and salutogenesis in space: Lessons from a series of studies

Individuals who adapt positively to an inhospitable or extreme environment can derive benefit from their experiences. This positive effect may include an initial improvement in mental health as someone adjusts to the environment (adaptation) as well as more sustained personal growth during the mission (salutogenesis). We review relevant findings from our prior work, including two post-mission surveys of astronauts and cosmonauts, and three studies of crewmembers during missions in a space station simulator, the Mir space station, and the International Space Station (ISS). We also present new analyses showing evidence for adaptation to ISS missions. This finding replicates our previous results from the simulation study, but this effect was not found on the Mir. A better understanding of psychological adaptation and salutogenesis during space flight should help us develop strategies to enhance crewmembers’ in-flight stress tolerance and post-flight adjustment.     

Contributions of the International Space Station towards future exploration missions

When the idea of a large space station in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) was conceived in the 1980s, it was primarily planned as an orbiting laboratory for microgravity research. Some even thought of it as an industrial plant in space. Whereas the latter did not materialize because of various reasons, the former is absolutely true when you talk about the International Space Station (ISS). Since the transition to a six astronaut crew in 2009 and the completion of its assembly in 2011, it has been intensively used as laboratory in a wide field of scientific topics. Experiments conducted on ISS have yielded first class results in biology, physiology, material science, basic physics, and many more. While its role as a laboratory in space is widely recognized, the awareness for its potential for preparing future exploration missions beyond LEO is just increasing. This paper provides information on how the ISS programme contributes to future exploration efforts, both manned and unmanned. It highlights the work that has been done or is currently underway in the fields of technology, operations, and science. Further potentials and future projects for exploration preparation are also shown. A special focus lies on experiments and projects primarily funded by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) or with strong German participation in the science team.     

载人深空探测任务航天医学工程问题研究

航天医学工程问题关系到载人深空探测任务中的人员生存及健康。文章从人员长期生存的生命保障、变重力生理效应及防护、地外环境效应与防护、人员生理健康监测与维护、人员心理健康等方面的问题入手,分析了问题产生的原因及解决的必要性,并提出了解决思路,为后续深入开展相关关键技术的攻关提供参考。最后,以载人月球基地任务为案例,提出了生命保障、变重力防护、辐射及月尘防护、生理及心理健康监测及维护等问题的解决方案。