Pricing competitively — a response to Jay Lightfoot

A recent paper in this journal criticized the two methods commonly used to allocate the costs of multi-payload launches, and proposed two new alternatives. The paper argued that ‘Shapley-value’ pricing and the ‘Independent Cost Proportional Scheme’ are immune to instability problems possible under the traditional mass-proportional approach, and reduce ‘subsidies’ paid to small payloads. This rejoinder shows that neither claim is true in general. It also questions whether new pricing formulas are truly needed — or even sustainable in today's competitive market.     

BNSC/RAS Town Meeting

In London on 20 September, the British National Space Centre and the Royal Astronomical Society convened a ‘Town Meeting’, a usage picked up from NASA. Basically it was a debate without the competetive element, whose topic was the next two of the European Space Agency's four ‘Cornestone’ projects for the ‘Horizon 2000’ programme, total budget 584 million ECU (about £467 million). The question in September was which would be no. 3 and which no. 4. Duncan Lunan reports on the discussion and the choices made.     

Worldwide direct audio broadcasting from space : Promoting ‘Glasnost’ with DBS-A

About 100 countries now pursue their ‘public diplomacy’ interests by broadcasting audio programmes via shortwave to 400 000 000 radio listeners. However signals broadcast by surface-based shortwave transmitters are limited in coverage, reliability and quality, and shortwave broadcasting suffers from increasingly difficult operating and political problems. Space technology could now begin to be employed to create common-carrier, common-user (Intelsat- and Inmarsat-like) space-based systems which could provide a truly excellent, low-cost, direct-broadcast audio service throughout the world. The world's governments could thereby use space in a new way to promote ‘Glasnost-Openness’ for ‘the benefit of all mankind’.     

The military in space : A historical relationship

The Deputy Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff offers some observations on the ‘militarization’ of space, arguing that military involvement does not necessarily mean an environment will become ‘weaponized’. He also comments on some future US space activities.     

It''s all a matter of fact. After all, fact matters

The fourth annual ‘British Rocketry Oral History Project’ (BROHP) conference was held from 2 to 4 April 2002, again in the magnificent grounds of Charterhouse School in Surrey. The conference marked a new point in its brief history, enlarged in scope and depth to extend to a new audience; yet one point remained constant throughout, namely that ‘history matters’. This report discusses the themes of the 2002 conference.     

A management approach for allocating instrument development resources

The Cassini Science Management Plan was developed for NASA's Cassini mission to Saturn to assist the Science Instrument Manager in guiding the development of the spacecraft's science payload. This plan, unlike previous development approaches, allocated the entire mass, power, data rate and budget resources for the science instruments to the Principal Investigators. The result removed the Cassini Project from adjudicating and reallocating resources for instrument development problems. Instrument development problems that did occur were resolved by the Principal Investigators themselves through the use of a ‘resource exchange’. The exchange allowed Principal Investigators to submit ‘bids’ (i.e. a request for resources) to a database. Principal Investigators were allowed to barter their own resources with other investigators. The resulting exchange or multilateral trade allowed the investigators to reallocate their resource to ‘better’ their current position.     

Remote sensing of natural resources : Legal and political considerations for the Third World

A state's posture on remote sensing of the Earth by orbiting satellites varies depending upon whether it is a ‘sensing’ or a ‘sensed’ state, upon its present economic status, and upon its economic and political history. This article considers the international legal questions related to remote sensing and discusses the political aspects with special emphasis upon the views of the Third World. The author concludes that, unless Third World states and others who support them alter their views somewhat, it is probable that remote sensing of natural resources will continue without specific legal guidelines.     

ISU design projects : A new instrument for shaping global space policy?

The author argues that students attending the International Space University (ISU) are becoming a force to be reckoned with in space activities thanks to their enthusiasm, dedication and their Design Projects tackling major technological issues. This article reviews previous projects, before focusing on those of 1993 and 1994, and analyses whether they can be seen as agents for change in space policy making. Key ‘selling points’ are the ‘students’ non-rigid approach to thinking and doing, their refusal to believe in the intractability of any problem and the appeal their novel coalition may have for political leaders.     

Leadership for new US strategic directions

Although faced with the new global challenges of terrorism and peer competition, the USA has been slow to adapt its cold war forces, and newer ‘warfighter’ strategy to meet them. Cyberspace and outer space offer the means to do this, via ‘responsive’ microsatellites and low-cost launchers, and broadband internet information and education services. The US military leadership is, however, not well enough versed in these technologies, with senior personnel largely lacking a space or technical background and having little appetite for change. If the USA is successfully to meet current challenges, it must first create a leadership that is technologically capable and philosophically attuned to change.     

Consideration of space activities by the UN general assembly

The thirty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly affirmed ‘that complete and general disarmament warrants that outer space should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and that it shall not become an arena for an arms race’.This text appears in the first of two important resolutions concerning outer space adopted by the General Assembly during its last session. Also in the first resolution, entitled ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ (A/39/59 of 12 December 1984), the Assembly called upon all states, particularly those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the objective of the peaceful uses of outer space and to take immediate measures to prevent an arms race in outer space in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international cooperation and understanding.     

Leading change at NASA: The case of Dan Goldin

Daniel Goldin set the record for longevity as administrator of NASA, serving from 1992 to 2001. Active and controversial, he was unusually visible as a self-proclaimed ‘agent of change’. Coping with a turbulent political environment, Goldin directed NASA from the end of the Cold War to the early 21st century. He effected change in the multitude of programs under his aegis, especially the Space Station and robotic Mars program. He was hailed at one point as a miracle worker and poster boy of government reinvention for his ‘faster, better, cheaper’ strategy of ‘doing more with less’. But Goldin left the agency under fire for cost overruns and reforms that reached too far. Using a policy innovation process approach, this paper traces Goldin's eventful years at NASA, his policy ends and administrative and technological means. It analyzes the record of success and failure of one of the most, influential administrators in NASA history. That record provides useful lessons for how an administrator gains, uses, and loses power in the US space policy system.     

Switzerland and space – how a small country succeeds

Is it possible for small nations to get their concerns aired or improve their industries and economies in the field of space activities? In this edited version of a speech to the international symposium on ‘The History of the European Space Agency’, held in London, 11–13 November 1998, the author demonstrates that, through judicious cooperative endeavour within the framework of ESA, and a willingness to put forward solutions rather than harping on problems, it is. Switzerland’s role in the foundation of ESA is discussed, along with various successful initiatives taken by the country. The particular difficulties presented by the country’s constitution – and how they have been overcome – are also examined. The author concludes with some thoughts on the present and futute state of space affairs in Europe.     

Space ethics and protection of the space environment

The construction of the International Space Station in low Earth orbit and the formulation of plans to search for life on Mars indicate that mankind is intent on making the space environment part of its domain. Publicity surrounding space tourism, in-space ‘burials’ and the sale of lunar ‘real estate’ suggests that, some time in the 21st century, the space environment will become an extension of our current terrestrial business and domestic environment. This prompts the question of our collective attitude towards the space environment and the degree to which we should regulate its use and protect it for future generations. This article offers a pragmatic view of an ethical code for space exploration and development, as far as it relates to the protection of the space environment.     

Surreal estate: addressing the issue of ‘Immovable Property Rights on the Moon’

At a time when scientific and commercial interest in the Moon is being reinvigorated it is becoming fashionable for ordinary individuals to ‘buy’ plots on the lunar surface, with the ‘vendors’ arguing that an absence of specific prohibition of individual private activity in space makes such action legal. It is therefore time for the legal community to address this situation by investigating just how legal such activity is—and bringing their findings to the attention of governments. This can be done through an examination of the relationship between national law and international space law, of the provisions of international space law—especially Article 2 of the Outer Space Treaty—and by answering any claims to private ownership of immovable property. Aside from the fact that individuals appear to be being duped, the pursuit of property claims on the Moon could impede future activities aimed at benefiting society.     

Tackling the barriers to progress

Over 200 people attended the ‘International Business in Space’ conference, organized by the Center for Space Policy Inc, Cambridge, MA, USA, in Washington, DC, 9–11 January 1985. The official focus - commercial space developments in the USA, Canada, Europe and Japan - was somewhat of a misnomer. While US, Canadian and European views and interests were well represented, the Japanese element was almost completely absent. Virtually every category of organization likely to be involved in the ‘industrialization of space’ was strongly represented: government agencies, major and medium-sized aerospace companies, entrepreneurial space firms, and service organizations, eg consulting groups, law firms and financial institutions. Not surprisingly at this stage, attendance by non-aerospace potential users of space was very weak. This report highlights two major themes - international cooperation and the role of overnments.     

Estimating the life cycle cost of the space exploration initiative

The Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) will take mankind back to the Moon and then to Mars. Preliminary estimates of SEI life cycle cost (LCC) are central to assessing programme alternatives. SEI LCC should be estimated by identifying the additional cost to accomplish the initiative over and above the cost to sustain a ‘base’ of space activities. Results of a study of four SEI alternatives provided SEI LCC cost estimates ranging from $91 billion to $308 billion (constant 1989 US dollars) from 1992 through 2020, depending upon programme philosophy. SEI LCC will be driven by the philosophy and goals of the programme, and, given the goal of ‘permanence’, essentially indeterminate because of the open-ended time horizon.     

Science in the national vision for space exploration: objectives and constituencies of the ‘discovery-driven’ paradigm

The NASA/White House Vision for Space Exploration is primarily focused on the development of human and robotic systems that will enable ‘discovery-driven’ investigations in areas important to the scientific community: Mars, the solar system's outer moons, and planets orbiting other stars. Such a portfolio can only be realized if NASA is prepared to target investment at opportunities that are most scientifically compelling. NASA's leaders will have to make decisions in subjective and uncertain environments about the relative long-term value of different kinds of scientific discoveries seen as equally important to different groups. A management paradigm of this kind will imply assessment of heterogeneous priorities and management of interdependent and changing requirements. In order to identify the basis and implications of a ‘discovery-driven’ paradigm, this paper surveys the relationship between the Vision's principles and its programmatic content, the objectives of the Vision's scientific focus areas and their interrelationships, and the public context in which science-focused exploration will proceed.     

CEOS: its role and activities

The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) was created, as a ‘best efforts’ organisation, in 1984, and has developed into the primary international cooperative body in this field. This article, written by the current Chairman of CEOS, describes CEOS’ membership, objectives and organisation, and looks in more detail at its role in the definition and implementation of an Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS).     

From initial ideas to a European plan: GMES as an exemplar of European space strategy

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) is an idea which originated during a meeting in Baveno, Italy, in May 1998, which generated a call for Europe to get its act together in the field of environmental monitoring from space, to define a well articulated strategy in this area and to build upon its excellent scientific research community, its proven technical prowess in Earth observation from space and its nascent political will to express its objectives in international fora related to climate change and other global environment topics. While Europe was already active in the most advanced areas of global monitoring, its rather uncoordinated efforts (even within the European Commission) lacked visibility and did not appear to fit into a clearly established strategy. The ‘Baveno initiative’ was an attempt to remedy this situation and find a place within a developing ‘European Strategy for Space’, which requires ESA and the European Union to work more closely together. GMES was extended to include the ‘security’ (in its wider sense) aspects of global monitoring, a move that produced a number of questions and misunderstandings, but which allowed many in Europe to realize that monitoring the activities of the Earth’ land masses, oceans and atmosphere do include a security dimension. GMES will eventually incorporate an implementation plan which will call upon various monitoring techniques, ambitious modelling projects and connections with society's more urgent requirements with respect to environmental protection and prevention or reduction of risks related to natural hazards. This will entail significant efforts to inform the user communities and to convince them of the relevance and usefulness of this initiative. It will also provide a sound basis for the European contribution to the new initiative for improved coordination of strategies and systems for Earth observations called for by the July 2003 Earth Observation Summit.     

The vision of human spaceflight

This viewpoint charts the historical origins of humans’ fascination with discovering, and having the possibility of visiting, outer space, arguing that acceptance of change is crucial to realizing such dreams. In the past, change was neither expected nor particularly welcomed but scientific and technological discoveries and advances––often made in the face of ‘establishment’ (e.g. Church) opposition––have persuaded people of the desirability of progress. Science fiction writers too have played a part in inspiring humans to want to explore the cosmos. Even if the current US Vision for space exploration proves politically unsustainable, today's humans will not abandon their dreams of space travel.