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1.
The gas flux from a volatile icy-dust mixture is computed using a comet nucleus thermal model in order to study the evolution
of CO outgassing during several apparitions from long-period Comet Hale-Bopp and short-period Comet Wirtanen. The comet model
assumes a spherical, porous body containing a dust component, one major ice component (H2O), and one minor ice component of higher volatility (CO). The initial chemical composition is assumed to be homogeneous.
The following processes are taken into account: heat and gas diffusion inside the rotating nucleus; release of outward diffusing
gas from the comet nucleus; chemical differentiation by sublimation of volatile ices in the surface layers and recondensation
of gas in deeper, cooler layers. A 2-D time dependent solution is obtained through the dependence of the boundary conditions
on the local solar illumination as the nucleus rotates. The model for Comet Hale-Bopp was compared with observational measurements
(Biver et al., 1999). The best agreement was obtained for a model with amorphous water ice and CO, assuming that a part of the latter is
trapped by the water ice, another part is condensed as an independent ice phase. The model confirms that sublimation of CO
ice at large heliocentric distance produces a gradual increase in the comet's activity as it approaches the Sun. Crystallization
of amorphous water ice begins at 7 AU from the Sun, but no outbursts were found. Seasonal effects and thermal inertia of the
nucleus material lead to larger CO outgassing rates as the comet recedes from the Sun. In the second part of this work the
model was run with the orbital parameters of Comet Wirtanen. Unlike Comet Hale-Bopp, the predicted CO outgassing from Comet
Wirtanen is almost constant throughout its orbit. Such behavior can be explained by a thermally evolved and chemically differentiated
comet nucleus.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
2.
Due to the outstanding brightness of Comet Hale-Bopp measurements of water production rates were possible over a wide range
of heliocentric distances (up to 5 AU). A variety of observing techniques have been used, including radio observations, IR-
and UV-measurements. The H2O-production of a comet is closely connected with the energy balance and the composition of its surface. By comparing measured
and calculated rates it is possible to derive properties of the nucleus. The results of this study demonstrate the importance
of seasonal effects and show that a low thermal conductivity enhances the water production rate. The observations can be matched
with a relatively low, lunar-like thermal conductivity. A lower size limit for the nucleus of Hale-Bopp is derived.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
3.
Surface temperature and the available effective energy strongly influence the mass flux of H2O and minor volatiles from the nucleus. We perform computer simulations to model the gas flux from volatile, icy components
in porous ice-dust surfaces, in order to better understand results from observations of comets. Our model assumes a porous
body containing dust, one major ice component (H2O) and up to eight minor components of higher volatility (e.g. CO, CH4, CH3OH, HCN, C2H2, H2S), The body's porous structure is modeled as a bundle of tubes with a given tortuosity and an initially constant pore diameter.
Heat is conducted by the matrix and carried by the vapors. The model includes radially inward and outward flowing vapor within
the body, escape of outward flowing gas from the body, complete depletion of less volatile ices in outer layers, and recondensation
of vapor in deeper, cooler layers. From the calculations we obtain temperature profiles and changes in relative chemical abundances,
porosity and pore size distribution as a function of depth, and the gas flux into the interior and into the atmosphere for
each of the volatiles at various positions of the body in its orbit.
In this paper we relate the observed relative molecular abundances in the coma of Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) and of Comet
46P/Wirtanen to molecular fluxes at the surface calculated from our model.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
4.
Altwegg K. Ehrenfreund P. Geiss J. Huebner W.F. Levasseur-Regourd A.-C. 《Space Science Reviews》1999,90(1-2):373-389
A major objective of the workshop was to learn about the chemical composition, physical structure, and thermodynamic conditions
of the outer parts of the solar nebula where comets formed. Here we sum up what we have learned from years of research about
the molecular constituents of comet comae primarily from in situ measurements of Comet 1P/Halley and remote sensing of Comets 1P/Halley, Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1), and Hyakutake (C/1996 B2).
These three bright comets are presumably captured Oort cloud comets. We summarize the analyses of these data to predict the
composition of comet nuclei and project them further to the composition, structure, and thermodynamic conditions in the nebula.
Near-future comet missions are directed toward less active short-period Jupiter-family comets. Thus, future analyses will
afford a better understanding of the diversity of these two major groups of comets and their respective regions of origin
in the solar or presolar nebula.
We conclude with recommendations for determining critical data needed to aid in further analyses. Results of the workshop
provide new guidelines and constraints for modeling the solar nebula.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
5.
The Neutral Mass Spectrometer on the Giotto spacecraft established that H2O is the dominant species in Comet Halley's volatiles and determined the abundance of more than 10 parent species. The instrument
discovered strong extended H2CO and CO sources in the coma of Comet Halley. Polymerized H2CO associated with the cometary dust and evaporating slowly as the monomer is most likely the extended H2CO source. Photodissociation of the H2CO into CO fully accounts for the extended CO source.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
6.
The sodium emissions have been observed in several new and long-period comets, but only for comet Mrkos 1957d (Nguyen-Huu-Doan,
1960) was a sodium tail detected on a Schmidt plate obtained with a objective prism. Comet Hale-Bopp 1995 O1 offered the first
great opportunity to get an image of a long sodium tail. It was more than 3 × 107 km long, defined as a third type of tail, as it was composed only of neutral atoms (Cremonese, 1997a). After the discovery
of the sodium tail another team announced it had observed it (Wilson et al., 1998), but it was soon realized they had seen a different sodium tail. The image of Wilson et al. (1998) showed a very diffuse sodium tail superimposed on the dust tail, most likely due to the release of sodium atoms from
dust particles. It was different from the narrow tail found in the image obtained by the European Hale-Bopp Team and its position
angle was 15-20 degrees lower. Spectroscopic observations have been performed on the dust tail, at different beta values,
and along the narrow sodium tail showing that the sodium emissions had very different line profiles. The analysis of these
profiles will yield important insights into the sources in the inner coma and in the dust tail. This work will report on preliminary
analysis of both sodium tails and emphasize the high-resolution spectroscopy performed on the dust tail.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
7.
Examination of the spatial distribution of CO intensity of Comet Halley indicates that a large fraction of CO originates from
the refractory organic component in the coma, rather than directly from the volatiles in the nucleus. Based on the fluffy
aggregate interstellar dust comet model, we have estimated the upper limits of the total amount of CO provided by coma dust.
The implications from the comparison of the predicted results with the observed value have been discussed.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
8.
W. F. Huebner 《Space Science Reviews》2008,138(1-4):5-25
In this introductory presentation, material is categorized according to our state of knowledge: What do we know, what do we think we know but don’t know certainly, and what do we not know but often describe it as if it were a well-established fact about comets, their nuclei, their composition, and processes within comets and their nuclei. The material is presented not with the intend to criticize laboratory work simulating condition in comet nuclei, or observers analyzing their observations, nor modelers using data from both these sources to improve our understanding and make predictions. The intent is to provoke discussion and dialog between these groups to avoid overstating the results. What is a Comet? A comet is a diffuse appearing celestial phenomenon moving in an orbit about the Sun. The central body, the nucleus, is composed of ice and dust. It is the source of all cometary activity, including comae and tails. We distinguish between molecular (including atoms and ions) and dust comae. At heliocentric distances of about 1 AU and less, the hydrogen coma typically has dimensions larger than the Sun. The tails are composed of dust, neutral atoms and molecules, and plasma. 相似文献
9.
C. M. Lisse M. F. A’Hearn T. L. Farnham O. Groussin K. J. Meech U. Fink D. G. Schleicher 《Space Science Reviews》2005,117(1-2):161-192
As comet 9P/Tempel 1 approaches the Sun in 2004–2005, a temporary atmosphere, or “coma,” will form, composed of molecules
and dust expelled from the nucleus as its component icy volatiles sublimate. Driven mainly by water ice sublimation at surface
temperatures T > 200 K, this coma is a gravitationally unbound atmosphere in free adiabatic expansion. Near the nucleus (≤ 102 km), it is in collisional equilibrium, at larger distances (≥104 km) it is in free molecular flow. Ultimately the coma components are swept into the comet’s plasma and dust tails or simply
dissipate into interplanetary space. Clues to the nature of the cometary nucleus are contained in the chemistry and physics
of the coma, as well as with its variability with time, orbital position, and heliocentric distance.
The DI instrument payload includes CCD cameras with broadband filters covering the optical spectrum, allowing for sensitive
measurement of dust in the comet’s coma, and a number of narrowband filters for studying the spatial distribution of several
gas species. DI also carries the first near-infrared spectrometer to a comet flyby since the VEGA mission to Halley in 1986.
This spectrograph will allow detection of gas emission lines from the coma in unprecedented detail. Here we discuss the current
state of understanding of the 9P/Tempel 1 coma, our expectations for the measurements DI will obtain, and the predicted hazards
that the coma presents for the spacecraft.
An erratum to this article is available at . 相似文献
10.
John F. Kerridge 《Space Science Reviews》1991,56(1-2):177-184
Carbon isotope ratios have been measured for CN in the coma of comet Halley and for several CHON particles emitted by Halley. Of these, only the CHON-particle data may be reasonably related to organic matter in the cometary nucleus, but the true range of 13C/12C values in those particles is quite uncertain. The D/H ratio in H2O in the Halley coma resembles that in Titan/Uranus. The next decade should substantially improve our understanding of the distribution of C, H, N, and O isotopes in cometary organics. The isotopic composition of meteoritic organic matter is better understood and can serve as a useful analog for the cometary case. 相似文献
11.
12.
Deuterium fractionations in cometary ices provide important clues to the origin and evolution of comets. Mass spectrometers
aboard spaceprobe Giotto revealed the first accurate D/H ratios in the water of Comet 1P/Halley. Ground-based observations
of HDO in Comets C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake) and C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp), the detection of DCN in Comet Hale-Bopp, and upper limits
for several other D-bearing molecules complement our limited sample of D/H measurements. On the basis of this data set all
Oort cloud comets seem to exhibit a similar
ratio in H2O, enriched by about a factor of two relative to terrestrial water and approximately one order of magnitude relative to the
protosolar value. Oort cloud comets, and by inference also classical short-period comets derived from the Kuiper Belt cannot
be the only source for the Earth's oceans. The cometary O/C ratio and dynamical reasons make it difficult to defend an early
influx of icy planetesimals from the Jupiter zone to the early Earth. D/H measurements of OH groups in phyllosilicate rich
meteorites suggest a mixture of cometary water and water adsorbed from the nebula by the rocky grains that formed the bulk
of the Earth may be responsible for the terrestrial D/H. The D/H ratio in cometary HCN is 7 times higher than the value in
cometary H2O. Species-dependent D-fractionations occur at low temperatures and low gas densities via ion-molecule or grain-surface reactions and cannot be explained by a pure solar nebula chemistry. It is plausible that cometary
volatiles preserved the interstellar D fractionation. The observed D abundances set a lower limit to the formation temperature
of (30 ± 10) K. Similar numbers can be derived from the ortho-to-para ratio in cometary water, from the absence of neon in
cometary ices and the presence of S2. Noble gases on Earth and Mars, and the relative abundance of cometary hydrocarbons place the comet formation temperature
near 50 K. So far all cometary D/H measurements refer to bulk compositions, and it is conceivable that significant departures
from the mean value could occur at the grain-size level. Strong isotope effects as a result of coma chemistry can be excluded
for molecules H2O and HCN. A comparison of the cometary
ratio with values found in the atmospheres of the outer planets is consistent with the long-held idea that the gas planets
formed around icy cores with a high cometary D/H ratio and subsequently accumulated significant amounts of H2 from the solar nebula with a low protosolar D/H.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
13.
The International Rosetta Mission, approved by the Science Programme Committee of the European Space Agency as the Planetary
Cornerstone Mission in ESA's long-term programme Horizon 2000, will rendezvous in 2011 with Comet 46P/Wirtanen close to its
aphelion and will study the nucleus and the evolution of the coma for almost two years until it reaches perihelion. In addition
to the investigations performed by the scientific instruments on board the orbiter, a Surface Science Package (Rosetta Lander)
will be deployed onto the surface of the nucleus early during the near-nucleus study phase. On its way to Comet 46P/Wirtanen,
Rosetta will fly by and study the two asteroids 4979 Otawara and 140 Siwa.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
14.
Karl-Heinz Glassmeier Hermann Boehnhardt Detlef Koschny Ekkehard Kührt Ingo Richter 《Space Science Reviews》2007,128(1-4):1-21
The ROSETTA Mission, the Planetary Cornerstone Mission in the European Space Agency’s long-term programme Horizon 2000, will
rendezvous in 2014 with comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko close to its aphelion and will study the physical and chemical properties
of the nucleus, the evolution of the coma during the comet’s approach to the Sun, and the development of the interaction region
of the solar wind and the comet, for more than one year until it reaches perihelion. In addition to the investigations performed
by the scientific instruments on board the orbiter, the ROSETTA lander PHILAE will be deployed onto the surface of the nucleus.
On its way to comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, ROSETTA will fly by and study the two asteroids 2867 Steins and 21 Lutetia. 相似文献
15.
Philippe L. Lamy Imre Toth Björn J. R. Davidsson Olivier Groussin Pedro Gutiérrez Laurent Jorda Mikko Kaasalainen Stephen C. Lowry 《Space Science Reviews》2007,128(1-4):23-66
In 2003, comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko was selected as the new target of the Rosetta mission as the most suitable alternative
to the original target, comet 46P/Wirtanen, on the basis of orbital considerations even though very little was known about
the physical properties of its nucleus. In a matter of a few years and based on highly focused observational campaigns as
well as thorough theoretical investigations, a detailed portrait of this nucleus has been established that will serve as a
baseline for planning the Rosetta operations and observations. In this review article, we present a novel method to determine
the size and shape of a cometary nucleus: several visible light curves were inverted to produce a size–scale free three–dimensional
shape, the size scaling being imposed by a thermal light curve. The procedure converges to two solutions which are only marginally
different. The nucleus of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko emerges as an irregular body with an effective radius (that of the
sphere having the same volume) = 1.72 km and moderate axial ratios a/b = 1.26 and a/c = 1.5 to 1.6. The overall dimensions
measured along the principal axis for the two solutions are 4.49–4.75 km, 3.54–3.77 km and 2.94–2.92 km. The nucleus is found
to be in principal axis rotation with a period = 12.4–12.7 h. Merging all observational constraints allow us to specify two
regions for the direction of the rotational axis of the nucleus: RA = 220°+50°
−30° and Dec = −70° ± 10° (retrograde rotation) or RA = 40°+50°
-30° and Dec = +70°± 10° (prograde), the better convergence of the various determinations presently favoring the first solution. The phase function,
although constrained by only two data points, exhibits a strong opposition effect rather similar to that of comet 9P/Tempel
1. The definition of the disk–integrated albedo of an irregular body having a strong opposition effect raises problems, and
the various alternatives led to a R-band geometric albedo in the range 0.045–0.060, consistent with our present knowledge of cometary nuclei. The active fraction
is low, not exceeding ~ 7% at perihelion, and is probably limited to one or two active regions subjected to a strong seasonal
effect, a picture coherent with the asymmetric behaviour of the coma. Our slightly downward revision of the size of the nucleus
of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko resulting from the present analysis (with the correlative increase of the albedo compared
to the originally assumed value of 0.04), and our best estimate of the bulk density of 370 kg m−3, lead to a mass of ~ 8 × 1012 kg which should ease the landing of Philae and insure the overall success of the Rosetta mission. 相似文献
16.
K. C. Hansen T. Bagdonat U. Motschmann C. Alexander M. R. Combi T. E. Cravens T. I. Gombosi Y.-D. Jia I. P. Robertson 《Space Science Reviews》2007,128(1-4):133-166
The plasma environment of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, the Rosetta mission target comet, is explored over a range of heliocentric
distances throughout the mission: 3.25 AU (Rosetta instruments on), 2.7 AU (Lander down), 2.0 AU, and 1.3 AU (perihelion).
Because of the large range of gas production rates, we have used both a fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model as well
as a semi-kinetic hybrid particle model to study the plasma distribution. We describe the variation in plasma environs over
the mission as well as the differences between the two modeling approaches under different conditions. In addition, we present
results from a field aligned, two-stream transport electron model of the suprathermal electron flux when the comet is near
perihelion. 相似文献
17.
《Space Science Reviews》2007,128(1-4):433-506
The Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared Remote Imaging System OSIRIS is the scientific camera system onboard the Rosetta
spacecraft (Figure 1). The advanced high performance imaging system will be pivotal for the success of the Rosetta mission.
OSIRIS will detect 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko from a distance of more than 106 km, characterise the comet shape and volume, its rotational state and find a suitable landing spot for Philae, the Rosetta
lander. OSIRIS will observe the nucleus, its activity and surroundings down to a scale of ~2 cm px−1. The observations will begin well before the onset of cometary activity and will extend over months until the comet reaches
perihelion. During the rendezvous episode of the Rosetta mission, OSIRIS will provide key information about the nature of
cometary nuclei and reveal the physics of cometary activity that leads to the gas and dust coma.
OSIRIS comprises a high resolution Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) unit and a Wide Angle Camera (WAC) unit accompanied by three
electronics boxes. The NAC is designed to obtain high resolution images of the surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko
through 12 discrete filters over the wavelength range 250–1000 nm at an angular resolution of 18.6 μrad px−1. The WAC is optimised to provide images of the near-nucleus environment in 14 discrete filters at an angular resolution of
101 μrad px−1. The two units use identical shutter, filter wheel, front door, and detector systems. They are operated by a common Data
Processing Unit. The OSIRIS instrument has a total mass of 35 kg and is provided by institutes from six European countries. 相似文献
18.
R. Schulz 《Space Science Reviews》2008,138(1-4):225-235
This article presents some recent imaging and spectroscopic observations that led to results which are significant for understanding the properties of comet nuclei. The coma morphology and/or composition were investigated for 12 comets belonging to different dynamical classes. The data analysis showed that the coma morphology of three non-periodic comets is not consistent with the general assumption that dynamically new comets still have a relatively uniform nucleus surface and therefore do not exhibit gas and/or dust jets in their coma. The determination of carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios revealed the same values for all comets investigated at various heliocentric distances. However, the relative abundance of the rare nitrogen isotope 15N is about twice as high as in the Earth’s atmosphere. Observations of comets at splitting events and during outbursts led to indications for differences between material from the nucleus surface and the interior. The monitoring of the induced outburst of 9P/Temple revealed that under non-steady state conditions the fast disintegration of species is detectable. 相似文献
19.
MIRO: Microwave Instrument for Rosetta Orbiter 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
S. Gulkis M. Frerking J. Crovisier G. Beaudin P. Hartogh P. Encrenaz T. Koch C. Kahn Y. Salinas R. Nowicki R. Irigoyen M. Janssen P. Stek M. Hofstadter M. Allen C. Backus L. Kamp C. Jarchow E. Steinmetz A. Deschamps J. Krieg M. Gheudin D. Bockelée-Morvan N. Biver T. Encrenaz D. Despois W. Ip E. Lellouch I. Mann D. Muhleman H. Rauer P. Schloerb T. Spilker 《Space Science Reviews》2007,128(1-4):561-597
The European Space Agency Rosetta Spacecraft, launched on March 2, 2004 toward Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, carries a
relatively small and lightweight millimeter-submillimeter spectrometer instrument, the first of its kind launched into deep
space. The instrument will be used to study the evolution of outgassing water and other molecules from the target comet as
a function of heliocentric distance. During flybys of the asteroids (2867) Steins and (21) Lutetia in 2008 and 2010 respectively,
the instrument will measure thermal emission and search for water vapor in the vicinity of these asteroids.
The instrument, named MIRO (Microwave Instrument for the Rosetta Orbiter), consists of a 30-cm diameter, offset parabolic
reflector telescope followed by two heterodyne receivers. Center-band operating frequencies of the receivers are near 190
GHz (1.6 mm) and 562 GHz (0.5 mm). Broadband continuum channels are implemented in both frequency bands for the measurement
of near surface temperatures and temperature gradients in Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko and the asteroids (2867) Steins
and (21) Lutetia. A 4096 channel CTS (Chirp Transform Spectrometer) spectrometer having 180 MHz total bandwidth and 44 kHz
resolution is, in addition to the continuum channel, connected to the submillimeter receiver. The submillimeter radiometer/spectrometer
is fixed tuned to measure four volatile species – CO, CH3OH, NH3 and three, oxygen-related isotopologues of water, H2
16O, H2
17O and H2
18O. The basic quantities measured with the MIRO instrument are surface temperature, gas production rates and relative abundances,
and velocity and excitation temperature of each species, along with their spatial and temporal variability. This paper provides
a short discussion of the scientific objectives of the investigation, and a detailed discussion of the MIRO instrument system. 相似文献
20.
The investigation of the volatile material in the coma of comets is a key to understanding the origin of cometary material,
the physical and chemical conditions in the early solar system, the process of comet formation, and the changes that comets
have undergone during the last 4.6 billion years. So far, in situ investigations of the volatile constituents have been confined
to a single comet, namely P/Halley in 1986. Although, the Giotto mission gave only a few hours of data from the coma, it has
yielded a surprising amount of new data and has advanced cometary science by a large step. In the present article the most
important results of the measurements of the volatile material of Halley's comet are summarized and an overview of the identified
molecules is given. Furthermore, a list of identified radicals and unstable molecules is presented for the first time. At
least one of the radicals, namely CH2, seems to be present as such in the cometary ice.
As an outlook to the future we present a list of open questions concerning cometary volatiles and a short preview on the next
generation of mass spectrometers that are being built for the International Rosetta Mission to explore the coma of Comet Wirtanen.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献