Fuel cell status: 1996

The technology of fuel cells is heating up. A world that, ten years ago, was unaware of the concept can now witness approximately 200 fuel cell units operating in 15 countries. Energy planners and decision makers are becoming aware that, in addition to a continual increase in installations, the reliability of early commercial units is outstanding and the cost is dropping. They have begun to ask whether fuel cells might fit into their future. While the fuel cell concept is simple, determining which type of fuel cell to consider may prove taxing. The multiplicity of fuel cells and their development programs, coupled with the amount of subject material and claims-versus-reality, may seem overwhelming. Fuel cell commercialization activities in North America are the focus of five manufacturers that are developing four types [fuel cells are typed by electrolyte: the 200°C phosphoric acid (PAFC); the 80°C proton exchange membrane (PEM); the 650°C molten carbonate (MCFC); and the 1,000°C solid oxide (SOFC) fuel cells]. Each fuel cell promises the attractive combination of fairly high efficiency and superior environmental performance compared to the presently available fossil-fueled electric generation technologies. As a result, fuel cells are particularly easy to site. There are additional advantages such as: excellent availability; electrical VAR control; quick ramp rate; remote/unattended operation; and redundancy when multiple units are installed. After earlier success in space, fuel cells are being applied to the commercial sector as on-site cogeneration units mostly fueled by natural gas. They are being considered for larger distributed generators (natural gas) and for vehicular power plants (methanol)     

Fuel cell status, 1994

The high efficiency environmental benefits and other attributes of fuel cells have attracted world-wide attention to the technology. Approximately 250 phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) power units, 35 molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) stacks, and 12 solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) modules have been or are being operated. Total capacity installed or operating is close to 45 MW. Fuel cell development has progressed to where complete power plants have reached nearly 16,000 operating hours and this continues to increase. Developers in the U.S. and Japan have embarked on extensive government and private programs to commercialize the technology in those countries and abroad. By mid-1994, the U.S. sold and shipped to other countries at least 33 PAFC 200 kW plants, 20 675 kW PAFC stacks, two SOFC 25 kW modules, and one MCFC system. Additional units have been produced for the domestic market. There is intense interest in Japan where there are very stringent environmental regulations and fuel prices are high. The fuel cell can respond with its combined attributes of low emissions and relative high efficiency. In Europe, the environmental cleanliness of fuel cell power units holds the promise of preserving the quality of life, motivating support and development of the technology. Canada and Australia have spawned important development programs. Interest continues to increase in other parts of the world. The author reviews the 1994 status and outlines the future development trends in this area     

Latest progress in fuel cell technology

A brief review of advances in fuel cell technology is given. The major types of cells being developed and their characteristics are tabulated. Also in table form is a summary of worldwide fuel cell application and developmental interests, particularly in Europe, Japan, and the US. Performance improvements for phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) over the years 1969-92 are discussed. Potential fuel cell markets are indicated     

US Army small fuel cell development program

This presentation includes results of fuel cell research activities sponsored by the US Army for the last three years, It outlines current efforts and future plans. The soldier's increasing power demands dictate that alternatives to batteries be exploited wherever possible. Fuel cells promise significant advantages in terms of weight, coupled with cost and/or logistics benefits. Considerable progress has been made in reducing size and weight of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The supply of hydrogen to PEM fuel cells has been one of the key barriers to introducing fuel cells to the military. The discussion will focus on several approaches being pursued     

One-dimensional numerical investigation on multi-cylinder gasoline engine fueled by micro-emulsions,CNG, and hydrogen in dual fuel mode

This research work is the novel state-of-the-art technology performed on multi-cylinder SI engine fueled compressed natural gas, emulsified fuel, and hydrogen as dual fuel. This work predicts the overall features of performance, combustion, and exhaust emissions of individual fuels based on AVL Boost simulation technology. Three types of alternative fuels have been compared and analyzed. The results show that hydrogen produces 20% more brake power than CNG and 25% more power than micro-emulsion fuel at 1500 r/min, which further increases the brake power of hydrogen, CNG, and micro-emulsions in the range of 25%, 20%, and 15% at higher engine speeds of 2500–4000 r/min, respectively. In addition, the brake-specific fuel consumption is the lowest for 100% hydrogen, followed by CNG 100% and then micro-emulsions at 1500 r/min. At 2500–5000 r/min, there is a significant drop in brake-specific fuel consumption due to a lean mixture at higher engine speeds. The CO, HC, and NO_x emissions significantly improve for hydrogen, CNG, and micro-emulsion fuel. Hydrogen fuel shows zero CO and HC emissions and is the main objective of this research to produce 0% carbon-based emissions with a slight increase in NO_x emissions, and CNG shows 30% lower CO emissions than micro-emulsions and 21.5% less hydrocarbon emissions than micro-emulsion fuel at stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.     

低压储能的升浮一体飞行器总体参数研究

升浮一体飞行器是一种综合了太阳能无人机和平流层飞艇特点的新型临近空间飞行器,是航空航天领域研究的热点,可再生燃料电池是升浮一体飞行器最有发展前景的储能装置。针对现有燃料电池中氢气和氧气存储方式的缺陷,充分利用升浮一体飞行器巨大的机身体积,提出了采用低压气囊储气的燃料电池方案,建立了升浮一体飞行器总体参数计算模型,提出常规燃料电池和气囊储气燃料电池的理论计算方法。研究了不同储气方式对升浮一体飞行器的能源系统以及飞行器总体参数的影响。研究表明,采用低压储气方法后,氢气的质量储气密度可提高至13.0%,燃料电池存储能量为1 489.7 kWh条件下,能量密度可达到1 000 Wh/kg以上,对减小升浮一体飞行器总重和外形尺寸、提高飞行器载荷能力有显著作用。     

AMTEC electrochemical heat-to electricity conversion defies secondlaw

Sacred among the mechanical engineers is the “second law of thermodynamics,” which defines the maximum possible efficiency of an engine that converts thermal energy into mechanical power. The second law value is the difference between the engine's heat-source temperature and its heat-sink temperature, divided by the absolute value of the engine's heat-source temperature. For example, an engine setting on 0° C ice and running on steam from 100°C boiling water is not allowed to have more than 26.8% efficiency. Power-generating violators of the second law efficiency-limit range from horses to fuel cells. They do not burn fuel to generate mechanical or electrical power. The latest second law violator is the alkali-metal thermal-to-electric converter. Its efficiency approaches 25 percent. AMTEC cells and their variations were the topics of 12 papers at the 35^th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC) in July 2000     

Design of solar high altitude long endurance aircraft for multi payload & operations

Research is being carried out at the Turin Polytechnic University with the aim of designing a HAVE/UAV (High Altitude Very-long Endurance/Unmanned Air Vehicle). The vehicle should be able to climb to an altitude of 17–20 km by taking advantage of direct sun radiation and maintaining a level flight; during the night, a fuel cells energy storage system would be used. A computer program has been developed to carry out a parametric study for the platform design. The solar radiation change over one year, altitude, masses and efficiencies of the solar and fuel cells, as well as the aerodynamic performances have all been taken into account. The parametric studies have shown how the efficiency of the fuel and solar cells and mass have the most influence on the platform dimensions. High modulus CFRP has been used in designing the structure in order to minimize the airframe weight. A Blended Wing Body (BWB) configuration of Solar HALE Aircraft Multi Payload & Operation (SHAMPO) with 8 brushless electric motors has been developed, as a result of the parametric study. The BWB solution, compared with conventional designs, seems to provide the best compromise between performance, availability of surfaces for solar-cells, and volume for multi-payload purposes. Several profiles and wing plans have been analyzed using the CFD software Xfoil and Vsaero. The airfoil coordinates at the root and along the wing span as well as the wing planform were optimised to achieve the best efficiency. A FEM analysis was carried out using the Msc/Patran/Nastran code to predict the static and dynamic behaviour of the UAV structure.     

燃料分配方式对微燃机燃烧室燃烧性能影响

提出了一种喷口位置可变采用燃料多点喷射的干式低排放(DLE)微型燃气轮机燃烧室,为了获得值班级与主燃级之间燃料分配方式对燃烧性能的影响,对该燃烧室在不同分配方式下的燃烧性能进行了实验测试与数值模拟。结果表明:燃料喷口位置改变对污染物排放影响不显著;燃料分配方式的改变对温度场和污染物的生成特性有影响,随着两级燃料分配比例的增大,NOx排放量呈现先减少后增加的趋势,存在一个最佳的燃料分配比例使NOx排放最低;燃烧室内存在明显的中心回流区(PRZ),便于点火及火焰传播;热力型NOx的生成量与温度高于1 950 K的区域大小和最高燃气温度有直接关系。所设计的燃烧室在以天然气为燃料的所有工况下NOx排放都可降低到50 mg/m3以下,达到了低污染燃烧室排放标准(小于50 mg/m3)。     

Fuel cells for “personal electricity”

Cars powered by fuel cells have been built and tested; however, the aerospace fuel cells could not deliver high power quickly when the driver wanted to accelerate his car. Today's hybrid electric cars carry a battery that supplies the acceleration power, and the prime power source, whether an engine or fuel cell, is not stressed with sudden load peaks. Zero air pollution becomes attainable when fuel-cells supply the prime power on a hybrid vehicle     

适用无人机的小型燃料电池控制方法

燃料电池动力系统作为一种长航时电动无人机的动力方案,其燃料电池的控制技术是决定动力系统可靠性和高效性的关键技术。针对用于无人机的小型空冷型开放阴极的质子交换膜燃料电池,考虑面向工程应用的燃料电池整体控制过程,兼顾电堆温度控制和水管理,提出了一种前馈型模糊PID的电堆温度控制方法,同时设计了一种基于安时积分门限法的膜水含量调节策略,以实现对整个燃料电池系统的高效控制。通过搭建燃料电池温度控制与水管理试验平台,对所提出的控制技术进行了试验验证,并与现有温控和水管理方法进行了对比分析。试验结果表明：所提前馈型模糊PID方法在较长时间的燃料电池启动过程中能够较快地达到目标温度,相比于PID方法减少了7%的调节时间,与传统模糊PID方法相当;燃料电池电流持续减小时,所提前馈型模糊PID方法对超调量的抑制效果具有明显优势,其超调量仅为PID方法的34%,为传统模糊PID方法的43%;所提安时积分门限排水控制方法既能防止水淹故障,又可提高燃料经济性,在所给工况中相比现有方法节约了15%的氢气。     

水下燃料电池推进技术研究进展

水下燃料电池推进系统具有能量转换效率和比能量高、振动噪声低、无尾气排放等诸多优势,可大幅提高无人潜航器的航程、航深和隐蔽性等关键性能,是水下推进领域极具发展潜力的技术方向。本文介绍了水下燃料电池推进系统组成和工作原理,归纳了国内外在无人潜航器、氢氧燃料电池和高能氢氧源方面的研究进展,探讨了燃料电池推进技术未来的发展重点。在氢氧燃料电池方面,应重点解决纯氧供应和闭式循环带来的排水、腐蚀等问题。在高能氢氧源方面,能量密度较高的是铝水反应制氢、柴油重整制氢和高氯酸锂制氧,应予以重点关注。     

Two-dimensional piston pump: Principle,design, and testing for aviation fuel pumps

Aviation fuel pumps of the future are required to be highly efficient and lightweight. As such, this work presents the designs of various mechanisms and structures of advanced two-dimensional piston pumps for aero-engines, and their universal kinematic design methods are detailed herein. The efficiency of various piston pump prototypes was experimentally tested at various speeds in an open circuit. The experimental results indicate that two-dimensional piston pumps have a volumetric efficiency >91% and a higher power–mass ratio than conventional fuel pumps under all the conditions studied. Furthermore, the structural and material problems encountered during testing can provide a blueprint for further improvement of the design and processing of two-dimensional piston fuel pumps.     

生物航煤的管理、验证标准及验证流程

为了创建自主认定航空替代燃料的审定办法,介绍了国外适航局对替代燃料的管理流程及标准ASTM D4054和ASTM D7566,以及中国适航局依据符合性验证方法制定的《含合成烃民用航空喷气燃料》（CTSO-2C701）标准。详细介绍了标准中规定的生物航煤生产工艺、最低性能标准以及获得批准书需要通过的理化性能和特定性能试验,包括发动机台架和试飞验证。标准中提出了采用技术标准规定批准书（CTSOA）的形式对生物航煤进行申请和批准。在比较国内外生物航煤管理、标准及验证流程技术基础上,总结了中国生物航煤性能验证技术、发动机台架和试飞要求,以及依据此验证技术进行了中国石化1号航煤的认证,为形成一套有别于其他国家的特定的审定办法提供了技术支持。      

固液火箭发动机工作过程三维数值仿真

根据固体燃料壁面与气相间的流固耦合得出了固体燃料燃速模型,对采用星形装药的H₂O₂/HTPB(hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene)固液火箭发动机进行了燃烧流动三维数值仿真,得到了流场参数的分布及不同位置的固体燃料燃速,与二维轴对称仿真结果进行了对比.计算结果表明:装药截面的火焰层形状与装药星孔型面形状相似,但火焰层厚度与位置在星根与星角处存在差异;随着轴向位置的增加,氧化剂不断消耗,火焰层向通道中心移动;固体燃料燃速与氧化剂流率及不同装药位置有关,其大小随氧化剂流率的增加而增加,星根处燃速比星角处大;在相同氧化剂流率下,三维星形装药比二维轴对称装药的平均固体燃料燃速大.      

TWA800 fuel tank flammability-an analytical investigation

The mission was to identify the conditions of atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature under which a so-called empty-fuel-tank, containing residual fuel, could contain hazardous air/fuel mixtures. The issues are limited to two applications: explosion safety concerns in gasoline fueled automotive vehicles and explosion safety in jet fueled jet aircraft. In general, we concluded that flammable mixtures, under certain conditions, may exist in an empty fuel tank containing residual fuel, at ambient temperatures ranging from -51°C (-60°F) through 93°C (200°F), at or below atmospheric pressure. However, in the case of a gasoline automotive fuel tank, at normal ambient temperatures above -18°C (0°F), it is absolutely certain that the fuel tank head space contains an over-rich mixture, which cannot explode, unless the automotive fuel tank is completely drained of liquid fuel. Further, in the case of a fixed wing jet aircraft, a combustible mixture also does not exist in a fuel tank containing JetA type fuel at ambient temperatures below 38°C (100°F) which is about the lean limit flash point for commercial jet fuel at sea level. Nevertheless, this study identified six highly unlikely, but rationally possible critical conditions which can occur in a combination which may permit a combustible mixture to exist within a jet aircraft fuel tank and pose a potential hazard. While the scope of this summary paper is limited to fixed wing jet aircraft fuels, details of the automotive vehicle gasoline fueled application are contained in the original paper     

航空煤油替代燃料的着火与燃烧特性

选用了航空煤油(Jet A-1)的3种替代燃料(正癸烷、正癸烷与三甲基苯双组分混合燃料、正癸烷与甲苯双组分混合燃料),并详细分析了这3种替代燃料着火与燃烧的详细化学反应机理(正癸烷单组分燃料为67种组分与344个基元反应,正癸烷与三甲基苯双组分混合燃料为118种组分与527个基元反应,正癸烷与甲苯双组分混合燃料为84种组分与440个基元反应).对这3种替代燃料在激波管中的着火延迟特性及在预混燃烧炉中的预混燃烧过程进行了详细的数值计算,并与实验数据进行了对比分析.同时,比较分析了双组分燃料中两种组分体积分数对着火与燃烧特性的影响.结果表明:在预测Jet A-1航空煤油的着火特性与预混燃烧特性上,两种双组分混合燃料要优于正癸烷单组分燃料.同时,两种双组分混合燃料中两种组分的体积分数对燃料的着火与燃烧特性影响显著.      

TAPS/MLDI低污染燃烧室油雾特性

采用粒子图像测速仪对一个带多点贫油直接喷射双环预混旋流燃烧室头部的低污染燃烧室油雾场进行了测量,试验研究不同燃油喷射方式时燃油流量变化对油雾特性的影响.结果表明:在试验工况下,粒径40μm左右的油珠数目最多,大于或小于此粒径的油珠数目都较少;单开值班级喷嘴时,随着燃油流量增加,燃油雾化变差;单开主燃级喷嘴时,增加燃油流量使燃油雾化稍有改善.同时打开值班级和主燃级喷嘴,保持油气比不变时,值班级和主燃级燃油量分配比例改变对燃油雾化特性的影响不大.      

High energy density regenerative fuel cell systems for terrestrialapplications

Regenerative Fuel Cell System (RFCS) technology for energy storage has been a NASA power system concept for many years. Compared to battery-based energy storage systems, RFCS has received relatively little attention or resources for development because the energy density and electrical efficiency were not sufficiently attractive relative to advanced battery systems. Even today, RFCS remains at a very low technology readiness level (TRL of about 2 indicating feasibility has been demonstrated). Commercial development of the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells for automobiles and other terrestrial applications and improvements in lightweight pressure vessel design to reduce weight and improve performance make possible a high energy density RFCS energy storage system. The results from this study of a lightweight RFCS energy storage system for a remotely piloted, solar-powered, high altitude aircraft indicate an energy density up to 790 wh/kg with electrical efficiency of 53.4% is attainable. Such an energy storage system would allow a solar-powered aircraft to carry hundreds of kilograms of payload and remain in flight indefinitely for use in atmospheric research, Earth observation, resource mapping, and telecommunications. Future developments in the areas of hydrogen and oxygen storage, pressure vessel design, higher temperature and higher pressure fuel cell operation, unitized regenerative fuel cells, and commercial development of fuel cell technology will improve both the energy density and electrical efficiency of the RFCS