Pricing policy and legal issues: 6th and 7th EOPOLE workshops

The following report presents the main conclusions of the sixth and seventh EOPOLE workshops, held in Hydra, Greece, 3–4 May and Leiden, the Netherlands, 3–5 July 2000, respectively. The objectives of the first workshop were to evaluate different approaches to pricing policy and to assess how new developments in Earth observation and information technology are having an impact on Earth observation data pricing policy. Those of the second were to assess the constraints that legal frameworks impose on Earth observation and to explore ways in which they can be used to its advantage.     

European perspectives on trends in public sector Earth observation data policies

The growing number of Earth observation satellites are producing ever increasing amounts of data. These data sets require adequate management to be widely exploited and to ensure preservation of what is a valuable information resource. Many Earth observation organisations have formulated or are developing policies related to how data are managed and distributed which encompass issues such as property rights, access and price of the data, exclusive data use and data archiving. European Earth observation is gaining more prominence in these developing policy issues. This paper is a review, from a largely European perspective, of current Earth observation data policies in operation by various public sector international, regional and national organisations in both the data providing and data user sectors. It will be demonstrated that certain trends exist between the various data policies but that differences in position are present in some key areas which may need to be reconciled in order for the Earth observation sector to reach maturity.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe

This paper summarizes the final report of the Earth Observation and Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) fixed-term project, set up to review national research on the subject and to make recommendations for its improvement within an EU-wide context. It identifies the major issues to have emerged from the areas of user perspectives, pricing policy, the impact of new technologies on data policy, archiving policy and legal regulation and suggests ways of dealing with them. These include orienting data policies towards specific uses rather than users themselves; presenting a common European voice over the trade and exchange of geo-information via new communication means; and establishing a European-scale think-tank able to provide independent assessments of the economic, legal and international relations questions affecting Earth observation.     

The Earth Observation Summit: heralding a new era for international cooperation

The world's first political summit on Earth observation was attended by senior policy makers and expert organizations from a range of scientific disciplines. Its aim was to improve global cooperation in Earth observation and increase its use as a decision-making tool for sustainable development and resource conservation. This article presents a brief survey of the progress made in Earth observation since its birth, along with the specific events driving the convening of the summit. The summit produced a declaration outlining four key areas requiring support, and an ad hoc group was established to produce a 10-year plan and drive implementation of policy.     

A failure of international space cooperation: the International Earth Observing System

This paper examines the failure of the Earth Observation International Coordination Working Group to implement an International Earth Observation System. Tracing the history of both the Group and the mission concept, it explains the political and organizational failures that took place. It shows that these failures were linked to different approaches to international cooperation in Earth observation data policy. The main points of contention existed between Working Group members, NASA and ESA. NASA favored formal and binding legal arrangements, while ESA preferred to avoid institutionalized legal commitments. Success in coordinating and harmonizing data policy on a multilateral basis for Earth observation missions is more likely to be achieved by pursuing agreement on general principles and terms of reference than by seeking specific legal agreements.     

The earth observation market: industrial dynamics and their impact on data policy

This paper examines the relationship between public sector objectives in the Earth observation data market and the economic interests of Earth observation data procedures. The Earth observation data market is treated as a particular example of an information market and the economic incentives created by the cultural characteristics of the market, particularly in Europe, are considered to assess the implications for data pricing policies. The analysis focuses upon implications of the vertical and horizontal linkages in the Earth observation industrial participation chain which includes space segment suppliers, space agencies and operators, data intermediaries and end users. A rebalancing of administrative and market decisions is proposed that would result in a shift in the allocation of public resources from space agencies and data intermediaries to data users whose activities are deemed to be in the widest public interest.     

Earth observation and the public good

The term ‘public good’ is often used in satellite Earth observation to indicate that Earth observation data are of value or interest to the public. In fact, the term ‘public good’ has a more specific meaning, originating in the discipline of Economics, which carries with it a set of assumptions and implications about how markets operate. In this context a public good has two main characteristics: non-rivalry and non-excludability. In their most common digital format, Earth observation data can appear to be both non-rivalrous and non-excludable. However, it is not the digital medium itself which controls the ‘publicness’ of a good but the conditions of access to that good. This paper explores the meaning of the concept of public goods in an Earth observation context by, first, examining public good theory and related concepts of categories of goods and, second, applying the concepts to nine Earth observation missions, programmes and data.     

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security: data policy considerations

Data policy is an important element of the initiative on Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES), which aims to establish a European capacity for the provision and use of operational information for monitoring and management of the environment and civil security by 2008. This paper documents the data policies of the variety of information providers likely to be involved in GMES, identifies the obstacles and draws conclusions on ways to improve data policy coherence. It addresses the main policy issues associated with Earth observation data, as well as with other types of environmental data.     

UNESCO, conference discusses remote sensing in Europe

This is an edited version of the Executive Summary of Euroconsult's latest report, covering the development, current status and potential of Europe's Earth observation data processing and interpretation services. The bulk of the report is based on a survey-carried out in conjuction with DG XII of the European Commission - of 28 companies and organizations, about one-third of the total involved in Earth observations in Europe. Full copies of the Executive Summary are available from EC DGXII-H-5, 75 rue Montoyer, Brussels, Belgium.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE)

A project has recently begun to review, coordinate and help formulate European Earth observation data policy. The project held its first of several workshops at University College London, 11–13 January 1999. The purpose of the first workshop was to conduct a review of the state-of-the-art in Earth observation data policy in Europe. All the EOPOLE team members gave presentations, and an extended discussion was held with Roy Gibson, former Director General of the European Space Agency, as the invited expert. This report describes the raison d'etre of EOPOLE and presents the main conclusions of the first workshop.     

Archives for Earth observation data

The fifth workshop of the EOPOLE project¹ was held in Seville, Spain, 17–19 January 2000, with the purpose of forming an opinion on European Earth observation data archiving policy. This report discusses the growing size and importance of EO data archives and presents the main conclusions of the workshop. The case is made for the establishment of a European centre for data archiving and users are urged to become more involved in archiving policy.     

天基照相跟踪空间碎片批处理轨道确定研究

随着国内外天基观测空间碎片研究的展开,文章提出了利用跟踪卫星的CCD(Charge
Coupled Device)相机对空间碎片进行轨道探测的方法,首先建立了CCD照相观测模型和基于 照相观测 的空间碎片批处理轨道确定模型。通过对CCD相机底片归算方法的分析可知,利用
CCD相机所获得的观测数据与跟踪卫星的姿态无关,且其精度只与测量和坐标转换计算的精 度有关,在测量和计算中可获得较高的精度。分别对分布密度较高的低轨道和地球同步 轨道区域的空间碎片进行了定轨分析。仿真结果表明,定轨时采用两个跟踪弧段的照相数据 定轨精度大大高于一个弧段照相数据的定轨精度;跟踪卫星距离空间碎片越近,定轨精度越 高;低轨道空间碎片的定轨精度高于地球同步轨道上的空间碎片定轨精度。
     

The use of remote sensing to support the application of multilateral environmental agreements

There is a growing realisation of the increasingly varied and interesting possibilities for the use of Earth observation data to ensure compliance with international obligations generally, and treaty obligations in particular. Most examinations of the application of Earth observation data to monitoring states’ compliance with international obligations focus on the environmental sector. This paper proposes the use of remote sensing satellites for the support of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), especially land monitoring MEAs such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997). It discusses the uses of remote sensing for treaty implementation or enforcement in general, and the admissability of satellite imagery as legal proof, before examining how Earth observation-derived data could be of benefit to specific MEAs. As sensors become increasingly sophisticated the use of remote sensing in this area should grow but it needs to be supported by its more widespread legal recognition as proof.     

Earth observation data archiving in the USA and Europe

The growing number of Earth observation satellites are producing exponential increases in the amount of data produced. These data sets contain valuable information on the state of the environment to accurately monitor and predict the impact of global change. Global change investigations require access to long-term data. This paper is a review of the current archiving practices of NOAA, NASA, SPOT, ESA and the DLR. It is demonstrated that despite recognition at a regional and organisational level of the importance of data archiving much work remains to be done. Funding responsibility is identified as a particularly problematic area of data archiving: it is an issue along with the need for easy accessibility and adequate metadata that will need to be resolved to ensure that future generations have access to adequate Earth observation data archives.     

Future for CIS space industry

The following is the executive summary of Volume 1 of Euroconsult's four volume study, Space Industries and Markets in Russia and Other Countries of the Former Soviet Union. The material reproduced covers space policy and industry in CIS countries, providing a transversal view of CIS space activities and organizations. Generic problems across all fields of applications are analysed; the final focus is on trade with foreign countries. The other volumes cover prospects for satellite communications in the CIS to 2000; prospects for Earth observation satellite systems in Russia and Ukraine to 2000; and prospects for space transportation systems in the CIS to 2000. Information on the whole — some 650 pages — may be obtained from Pauline Byrne at Euroconsult, 71 Boulevard Richard Lenoir, 75011 Paris, France.     

New technologies and data integration

The fourth workshop of the Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) project was held in Brussels, Belgium, 18–20 October 1999 at the offices of the European Commission DG Research, with Yves Reginster of Gere SA, Luxembourg, as guest speaker. The purpose of the workshop was to discuss the data policy issues raised by new technologies and by integrating Earth observation (EO) data with non-EO data. They included risks and reliability of output products, transfer of experience with new projects and intellectual property rights.     

Progress in multilateral Earth observation cooperation: CEOS, IGOS and the ad hoc Group on Earth Observations

The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) coordinates international civil space-borne missions designed to observe and study planet Earth. With over 100 Earth observation satellites expected to be launched during the next 10 years, it is clear that collaborative opportunities have not been fully maximized. In 2003 CEOS has been focusing on articulating a more comprehensive satellite data utilization approach and in following up on its significant involvement in the World Summit on Sustainable Development. The CEOS Chair also serves as Co-Chair of the Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) Partnership, which seeks to reduce observation gaps and unnecessary overlaps and to harmonize and integrate common interests of space-based and in situ systems. IGOS focused in 2003 on development of a number of themes, including Carbon Cycle, Water Cycle and GeoHazards. The IGOS Ocean Theme is now in its implementation phase. NOAA, while chairing CEOS and co-chairing IGOS, has also been actively involved in organizing and hosting a ministerial-level Earth Observation Summit with a follow-on Group on Earth Observations (GEO) charged with developing the framework for a comprehensive global Earth observation system(s). All these activities demonstrate the commitment to developing more coherent and sustained Earth observation strategies for the good of the planet.     

Project Catch: A space based solution to combat illegal,unreported and unregulated fishing: Part I: Vessel monitoring system

Space assets have a unique opportunity to play a more active role in global resource management. There is a clear need to develop resource management tools in a global framework. Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) fishing is placing pressure on the health and size of fishing stocks around the world. Earth observation systems can provide fishery management organizations with cost effective monitoring of large swaths of ocean. Project Catch is a fisheries management project based upon the complimentary, but independent Catch-VMS and Catch-GIS systems. Catch-VMS is a Vessel Monitoring System with increased fidelity over existing offerings. Catch-GIS is a Geographical Information System that combines VMS information with existing Earth Observation data and other data sources to identify Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) fishing. Project Catch was undertaken by 19 Masters students from the 2010 class of the International Space University. In this paper, the space-based system architecture of Project Catch is presented and analyzed. The rationale for the creation of the system, as well as the engineering trade-off studies in its creation, are discussed. The Catch-VMS proposal was envisaged in order to address two specific problems: (1) the expansion of illegal fishing to high-latitude regions where existing satellite systems coverage is an issue and (2) the lack of coverage in remote oceanic regions due to reliance on coastal-based monitoring. Catch-VMS utilizes ship-borne transponders and hosted-payload receivers on a Global Navigation Satellite System in order to monitor the position and activity of compliant fishing vessels. Coverage is global and continuous with multiple satellites in view providing positional verification through multilateration techniques. The second part of the paper briefly describes the Catch-GIS system and investigates its cost of implementation.     

The Indian EO Programme-national and global drivers

The Indian Earth Observations Program, over the past three decades, has been mainly driven by the national need for natural resources management, environment monitoring and disaster support. With an array of seven Indian Earth Observation Satellites, national development support has been provided through a well-knit institutional framework of a National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS). A wide variety of applications have been developed as an inter-agency effort over the past 15 years. Now, the capacity of the programme has extended into the global arena and is providing operational data services to the global user community. Positioning of relevant policy guidelines for the EO program to contribute to national endeavor and its transitioning for global outreaching and development of a commercial enterprise — both at national and global levels has been an area of constant attention within ISRO.Issues related to defining the space and data acquisition as a national “public ground”, costing of data products and services and evolving a commercial Earth Observation policy have been addressed for providing the overall thrust of the Indian Earth Observations program. The paper discusses the evolution of the policy in the early stages and its transition today to support a two-pronged strategy of supporting national development support and at the same time, developing a commercial program. The paper also illustrates the success of these policy endeavors through specific cases of applications and development of value added services. The paper also brings out the potential policy adjustments that will be called for in the coming years.     

Ukrainian space policy — contributing to national economic development

Following Ukraine's 1991 declaration of independence and the disintegration of the USSR, Ukraine inherited a third of the Soviet Union's space industry. This paper presents an overview of the main features of Ukraine's current policy on the exploitation of this capability as a factor in the transformation of its economy. It illustrates how the policy is being realized in the areas of launch systems, Earth observation, satellite communications and international relations, and concludes that Ukraine's strengths in the space field are counterbalanced by obstacles which must be faced, both within the country and externally.