The optical parameters of the atmosphere of Venus

This work is devoted to the derivation of the optical properties of the Venus atmosphere from “Venera-10” optical measurements. Within the framework of a two-layer model of Venus atmosphere it is found that in the spectral interval 0.52 – 0.85 μm the optical thickness of the upper cloud layer is ≈ 50 and the optical parameters of the lower layer are similar to the Rayleigh ones. Comparison is made between the measurements of radiation field within the atmosphere and the results of strict calculations. A preliminary conclusion is suggested that there are considerable numbers of aerosol particles with a radius ? 0.03 μm in the lower layer. The results of the upper boundary of the cloud layer is estimated to be ≈ 70 km.     

Optical properties of the Venusian atmosphere and radiative heat exchange

A detailed study has been made of the optical properties of the gas and aerosol phases of the atmosphere of Venus. The radiative heat exchange has been calculated for the most probable models of atmospheric structural and optical characteristics.     

Planet temperatures with surface cooling parameterized

A semigray (shortwave and longwave) surface temperature model is developed from conditions on Venus, Earth and Mars, where the greenhouse effect is mostly due to carbon dioxide and water vapor. In addition to estimating longwave optical depths, parameterizations are developed for surface cooling due to shortwave absorption in the atmosphere, and for convective (sensible and latent) heat transfer. An approximation to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation provides water–vapor feedback. The resulting iterative algorithm is applied to three “super-Earths” in the Gliese 581 system, including the “Goldilocks” planet g (Vogt et al., 2010). Surprisingly, none of the three appear habitable. One cannot accurately locate a star’s habitable zone without data or assumptions about a planet’s atmosphere.     

The absorption of solar energy and the heating rate in the atmosphere of Venus

The Solar Flux Radiometer (LSFR) experiment on the large probe of the Pioneer Venus (PV) mission made detailed measurements of the vertical profile of the upward and downward broadband flux of sunlight at a solar zenith angle of 65.7°. These data have been combined with cloud particle size distribution measurements on the PV mission to produce a forward-scattering model of the Venus clouds. The distribution of clouds at high altitudes is constrained by measurements from the PV orbiter. Below the clouds the visible spectrum and flux levels are consistent with Venera measurements at other solar zenith angles. The variations in the optical parameters with height and with wavelength are summarized in several figures. The model is used to evaluate the solar heating rate at cloud levels as a function of altitude, solar longitude, and latitude for use in dynamical studies.     

The Venus ionosphere

Physical properties of the Venus ionosphere obtained by experiments on the US Pioneer Venus and the Soviet Venera missions are presented in the form of models suitable for inclusion in the Venus International Reference Atmosphere. The models comprise electron density (from 120 km), electron and ion temperatures, and relative ion abundance in the altitude range from 150 km to 1000 km for solar zenith angles from 0° to 180°. In addition, information on ion transport velocities, ionopause altitudes, and magnetic field characteristics of the Venus ionosphere, are presented in tabular or graphical form. Also discussed is the solar control of the physical properties of the Venus ionosphere.     

EUV imaging of near-Venus space

Japan’s Venus Climate Orbiter (the Planet-C spacecraft) will be launched in 2008 and will reach an orbit in the ecliptic plane around Venus in 2009. We propose two eXtreme UltraViolet (XUV) imagers to take global two-dimensional snapshots of near-Venus space, including the Venus ionosphere and the interaction region between the solar wind plasma and the Venus ionospheric plasma. The imagers detect the resonantly scattering emissions of oxygen ions (O II 83.4 nm) and atoms (O I 130.3 nm), neutral helium (He I 58.4 nm), and hydrogen (H Ly-α 121.6 nm). Scientific goals are to investigate mechanisms of momentum and mass transfer across the ionopause, of convection in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere, and of atmospheric escape. Especially, we emphasize that sequential images of the O II 83.4-nm emission will enable us to understand temporal evolution of the vortex produced by the Kelvin–Helmholtz (K–H) instability. Though the wave structure due to the K–H instability is generated also at the terrestrial magnetopause, oxygen ions are too tenuous to detect the emission. On the other hand, at the Venus ionopause oxygen ions have enough density to image the resonance emission, i.e., the Venus ionosphere plays a role as a space laboratory for plasma physics.     

Models of the structure of the atmosphere of Venus from the surface to 100 kilometers altitude

From a critical comparison and synthesis of data from the four Pioneer Venus Probes, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, and the Venera 10, 12, and 13 landers, models of the lower and middle atmosphere of Venus are derived. The models are consistent with the data sets within the measurement uncertainties and established variability of the atmosphere. The models represent the observed variations of state properties with latitude, and preserve the observed static stability. The rationale and the approach used to derive the models are discussed, and the remaining uncertainties are estimated.     

Solar wind governing the response of Venusian atmosphere and ionosphere

The ionosphere of Venus is primarily formed by photoionization of a gaseous blanket around Venus. The impact ionization by energetic solar charged particles also plays an important role in the variability of Venusian ionospheric ion, electron density and their temperature profiles. The microscopic variations in the solar wind velocity, particle flux and orientations of frozen-in interplanetary magnetic field determine the solar wind interaction with the Venusian ionosphere. The ion and electron density profiles obtained by Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Pioneer Venus Entry Probes have been analysed in the light of simultaneous solar wind velocity and particle flux. Marked changes in height profiles of ion, electron densities and their temperatures have been found to correlate with the simultaneous changes in the solar wind velocity and particle flux. It is shown that the solar wind plays a more important role in controlling the physical properties and behavior of daytime as well as nighttime ionosphere of Venus, whereas the solar xuv sustains the primary ionization process.     

Model calculations of the dayside ionosphere of Venus

Model calculations of the dayside ionosphere of Venus are presented. The coupled continuity and momentum equations were solved for O₂⁺, O⁺, CO₂⁺, C⁺, N⁺, He⁺, and H⁺ density distributions, which are compared with measurements from the Pioneer Venus ion mass spectrometer. The agreement between the model results and the measurements is good for some species, such as O⁺, and rather poor for others, such as N⁺, indicating that our understanding of the dayside ion composition of Venus is incomplete. The coupled heat conduction equations for ions and electrons were solved and the calculated temperatures compared with Pioneer Venus measurements. It is shown that fluctuations in the magnetic field have a significant effect on the energy balance of the ionosphere.     

大展弦比联接翼结构重量估算

联接翼是一种将前翼和后翼连接在一起的飞行器创新布局形式.针对飞机总体设计阶段需要知道飞机结构重量与气动外形参数之间关系的问题,提出了一种建立大展弦比联接翼布局飞机外形参数与结构重量之间关系的方法.该方法首先应用结构有限元的参数化建模和结构优化方法获得联接翼的结构重量,然后应用试验设计法和响应面模型获得外形参数与其结构重量之间的定量关系.应用这种方法,获得了某大展弦比联接翼结构重量与其外形参数(包括前翼展长、后翼展长与前翼展长之比、前翼展弦比、前翼上反角、前翼后掠角、前后翼根弦前缘纵向距离以及前后翼根弦前缘垂直距离)之间的关系.所获的计算结果对联接翼布局飞机总体参数的确定具有参考价值.     

Structure of the middle atmosphere of Venus from analysis of Fourier spectrometer measurements aboard Venera 15

Infrared spectra of Venus measured by means of the Fourier spectrometer aboard Venera 15 orbiter were used for retrievals of temperature profiles of the atmosphere in the altitude range from 60 to 95 km. Monotonous profiles are typical for latitudes lower than 60° latitude, but on the dayside near the equator some traces of the upper atmospheric inversion were found in the profiles. At latitudes greater than 60°N the profiles contain an isothermal or inversional part between 10 and 100 hPa pressure levels. Temperature profiles inside the “warm dipole” maxima are the same as outside of this region and consequently these optical properties should be explained only by peculiarities of cloud structure there.     

Hybrid modelling the Pioneer Venus Orbiter magnetic field observations

This study presents comparisons between the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) magnetometer (OMAG) observations and the HYB-Venus hybrid simulation code. The comparisons are made near periapsides of four PVO orbits using the full resolution PVO/OMAG data. Also, the statistics of the solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) conditions at Venus are studied using the PVO interplanetary dataset. The statistics include the histograms and the probability density maps of the selected upstream parameters. The confidence intervals derived from the upstream statistics demonstrate the nominal simulation input parameter space. Moreover, the probability density maps give the dependencies between the upstream parameters. The comparisons between the simulation code and the data along the spacecraft trajectory show that the basic, large scale, trends seen in the magnetic field can be understood by the current simulation runs. The discrepancies between the simulation and the data were found to arise at low altitudes close to the planetary ionosphere in the region which cannot be resolved in detail by the grid size of the runs.     

Second generation prototype design and testing for a high altitude Venus balloon

This paper describes the development of a second generation prototype balloon intended for flight in the upper atmosphere of Venus. The design of this new prototype incorporates lessons learned from the construction and testing of the first generation prototype, including finite element analyses of the balloon stresses and deformations, measured leak performance after handling and packaging, permeability and optical property measurements on material samples, and sulfuric acid testing. An improved design for the second generation prototype was formulated based on these results, although the spherical shape and 5.5 m diameter size were retained. The resulting balloon has a volume of 87 m³ and is capable of carrying a 45 kg payload at a 55 km altitude at Venus. The design and fabrication of the new prototype is described, along with test data for inflation and leakage performance.     

Analysis of NASA’s DSN Venus Express radio occultation data for year 2014

The Venus Express Radio Science Experiment (VeRa) was part of the scientific payload of the Venus Express (VEX) spacecraft and was targeted at the investigation of Venus’ atmosphere, surface, and gravity field as well as the interplanetary medium. This paper describes the methods and the required calibrations applied to VEX-VeRa raw radio occultation data used to retrieve vertical profiles of Venus’ ionosphere and neutral atmosphere. In this work we perform an independent analysis of a set of 25 VEX, single-frequency (X-band), occultations carried out in 2014, recorded in open-loop at the NASA Deep Space Network. Our temperature, pressure and electron density vertical profiles are in agreement with previous studies available in the literature. Furthermore, our analysis shows that Venus’ ionosphere is more influenced by the day/night condition than the latitude variations, while the neutral atmosphere experiences the opposite. Our scientific interpretation of these results is based on two major responsible effects: Venus’ high thermal inertia and the zonal winds. Their presence within Venus’ neutral atmosphere determine why in these regions a latitude dependence is predominant on the day/night condition. On the contrary, at higher altitudes the two aforementioned effects are less important or null, and Venus’ ionosphere shows higher electron density peaks in the probed day-time occultations, regardless of the latitude.     

Comparative atmospheric dynamics for terrestrial planets

A review is presented of theoretical ideas on the general circulations in the atmospheres of Earth, Mars and Venus and also of results of their theoretical modelling. The role of various factors is discussed in the formation of the circulations. These results are compared with observational data obtained by different means. Data of direct local measurements of meteorological parameters in the atmospheres of Venus and Mars are discussed including those obtained at their surfaces.     

Empirical model of the composition of the Venus ionosphere: Repeatable characteristics and key features not modeled

In-situ measurements of positive ion composition of the ionosphere of Venus are combined in an empirical model which is a key element for the Venus International Reference Atmosphere (VIRA) model. The ion data are obtained from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter Ion Mass Spectrometer (OIMS) which obtained daily measurements beginning in December 1978 and extending to July 1980 when the uncontrolled rise of satellite periapsis height precluded further measurements in the main body of the ionosphere. For this period, measurements of 12 ion species are sorted into altitude and local time bins with altitude extending from 150 to 1000 km. The model results exhibit the appreciable nightside ionosphere found at Venus, the dominance of atomic oxygen ions in the dayside upper ionosphere and the increase in prominence of atomic oxygen and deuterium ions on the nightside. Short term variations, such as the abrupt changes observed in the ionopause, cannot be represented in the model.     

Monitoring spatio-temporal variations in aerosols and aerosol–cloud interactions over Pakistan using MODIS data

Clouds are important elements in climatic processes and interactions between aerosols and clouds are therefore a hot topic for scientific research. Aerosols show both spatial and temporal variations, which can lead to variations in the microphysics of clouds. In this research, we have examined the spatial and temporal variations in aerosol particles over Pakistan and the impact of these variations on various optical properties of clouds, using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data from the Terra satellite. We used the Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model for trajectory analysis to reveal the origins of air masses, with the aim of understanding these spatial and temporal variabilities in aerosol concentrations. We also documented seasonal variations in patterns of aerosol optical depth (AOD) over Pakistan, for which the highest values occur during the monsoon season (June–August). We then analyzed the relationships between AOD and four other cloud parameters, namely water vapour (WV), cloud fraction (CF), cloud top temperature (CTT) and cloud top pressure (CTP). Regional correlation maps and time series plots for aerosol (AOD) and cloud parameters were produced to provide a better understanding of aerosol–cloud interaction. The analyses showed strong positive correlations between AOD and WV for all of the eight cities investigated. The correlation between AOD and CF was positive for those cities where the air masses were predominantly humid, but negative for those cities where the air masses were relatively dry and carried a low aerosol abundance. These correlations were clearly dependent on the meteorological conditions for all of the eight cities investigated. Because of the observed AOD–CF relationship, the co-variation of AOD with CTP and CTT may be attributable to large-scale meteorological variations: AOD showed a positive correlation with CTP and CTT in northern regions of Pakistan and a negative correlation in southern regions.     

Electromagnetic waves observed by Venus Express at periapsis: Detection and analysis techniques

The magnetometer on Venus Express was designed to be able to obtain 128 Hz samples of the magnetic field from two sensors in a gradiometer configuration. This mode is used around periapsis to determine whether the signals reported at low altitudes near 100 Hz, had the properties of electromagnetic waves generated by electric discharges in the Venus atmosphere. The lack of a magnetic cleanliness program and the shortness of the magnetometer boom make this a challenging measurement. Fortunately the signals are sufficiently strong that they can be easily resolved with rather straightforward analysis techniques.     

Estimation of sediment settling velocity in estuarine and coastal waters using optical remote sensing data

A robust method has been developed for estimating sediment settling velocity (w_s) from high resolution optical remote sensing data in estuarine, coastal and harbor waters. This method estimates settling velocity as a function of the drag coefficient (C_d), Reynolds number (Re), grain size (D₅₀), specific gravity (Δ_SG) and grain shape (in terms of the Corey Shape Factor – CSF). These parameters were derived from the particulate inherent optical properties such as backscattering (b_bp), beam attenuation (c_p), suspended sediment concentration and turbidity using Landsat 8 OLI and HICO data. Preliminary results for the Gulf of Cambay in the eastern Arabian Sea and Yangtze river estuary in the East China Sea, showed that satellite-retrieved settling velocities (m?s^?1) varied from very low values in clear oceanic waters, intermediate values in coastal waters, to very high values in river plumes and sediment-laden coastal waters. The remote sensing retrievals of sediment properties and their settling velocities were generally consistent with the field and laboratory results, which indicate that the proposed methodology will have important implications in various coastal engineering, environmental and management studies.