A numerical study of the charge diameter effect on unsteady detonation

A numerical study for the unsteady detonation of an unconfined tetryl charge of small diameter, which is assumed to be homogeneous, was performed by using the two-dimensional Lagrangian hydrodynamic computer code, 2 DL, with the first order Arrhenius equation of reaction rate. Becker-Kistiakowsky-Wilson (BKW) and Kihara-Hikita (KH) equations of state have been applied to the detonation products.In the case of BKW, it is shown that the rarefaction waves propagating inward from the lateral surface make the reaction rate slow and give a curvature to the front. Then after an induction time, a strong initiation occurs in the reaction zone near the lateral surface and higher pressure zone moves to the axis. This higher pressure accelerates the detonation propagation near the lateral surface and the curvature of detonation front is reduced. Then, the reaction at the lateral surface again begins to decay by the rarefaction waves. Such a sequence of process is repeated periodically.The possibility of the occurrence of the strong initiation depends on the pressure and temperature in the shocked zone near the surface. In a small diameter charge, the delayed explosion becomes weaker near the surface, while its frequency increases. No shock interaction occurs because the direction of the particle flow is always divergent.In the case of KH equation of state, the temperature of detonation is higher than that obtained by BKW and the behaviour of instability becomes rather different from the previous result, i.e. in the axis the pressure oscillates repeating the overdriven and underdriven detonation similar with the case of BKW.     

The failure of marginal detonations in expanding channels

Critical conditions for detonation failure due to tube expansion have been observed in marginal detonations propagating in a in. (6.35 × 76.2 mm) channel. In these experiments, a well established marginal detonation propagating in the narrow channel entered a test section in which one of the narrow walls was inclined to the central axis at positive angles which ranged from 10° to 45°. Experiments were performed at pressures ranging from 60 to 200 torr (8 to 26.7 kPa) in stoichiometric hydrogen-oxygen mixtures diluted with 20, 50 and 70% argon. Smoke track records obtained on the surface which is the major dimension of the tube, were used to determine failure, incipient failure or self-sustenance of the entering wave.Because of the narrow tube used in the studies the incident waves were marginal in that their velocity was below the expected CJ (Chapman-Jouguet) value, their transverse wave spacing was larger than one would see in a large tube, and the transverse waves were of greater strength than in an ordinary detonation. All of these indicators of marginal behavior became progressively more pronounced as the pressure dropped from 200 torr (26.7 kPa) to the limit pressure of approximately 58 torr (7.73 kPa).The most interesting result of this experimental investigation is that the theoretical analyses predicted that simple one-dimensional opening of the tube should not show a pressure dependence to failure, while the experiments showed a definite decrease in the opening angle required for failure as initial pressure decreased. This behavior is related to the marginality of the incident waves, which is observed to increase smoothly with decreased pressure. It is postulated that detonation failure in the hydrogen-oxygen system occurs when the shock velocity at the end of the cell drops to about 0.60 of the CJ value due either to marginal behavior or to an expansion of the cross section of the tube.     

煤油温度对于爆震波形成影响的实验研究

在内径为30mm的脉冲爆震发动机模型上，以煤油为燃料，以空气为氧化剂，成功地进行了两相爆震实验，获得了充分发展的脉冲爆震波。测试了在化学恰当比，不同爆震频率及燃油温度下的爆震波压力，并对其变化进行了分析。通过分析实验结果发现，在化学恰当比下，爆震频率不变时，煤油温度的升高明显促进了爆震的形成，在内径小于混合物胞格尺寸的爆震管内，可以形成充分发展的两相脉冲爆震波。     

Effects of a hot jet on detonation initiation and propagation in supersonic combustible mixtures

The effects of a hot jet on detonation initiation and propagation in supersonic combustible mixtures has been studied with two-dimensional numerical simulations with the open-source program AMROC that uses a block-structured adaptive mesh refinement method. Results indicate that the hot jet could ignite the detonation effectively in supersonic combustible mixtures like a pneumatic ramp. After the realization of the detonation initiation, the hot jet can still play an important role on the detonation propagation during its continuous ejection. For a hot jet with certain diameter, it can result in an overdriven detonation with almost constant overdrive degree. After the shutdown of the hot jet, the stable CJ detonation combustion was realized finally in the supersonic combustible mixtures. With the re-ejection of the hot jet, the failed detonation could be reinitiated quickly. Through the control of the re-ejection of the hot jet, it plays a key role not only in the initiation process, but also in the subsequent continuous detonation combustion period.     

Initiation of spherical detonation in hydrocarbon/air mixtures

Spherical detonations have been initiated by solid explosive (Tetryl) charges in well-mixed stoicheiometric air mixtures with each of the hydrocarbons, ethane, propane, n-butane, isobutane and ethylene at atmospheric pressure. Prior to initiation, the gases were contained in plastic bags; total gas volume and available path length were up to 1.6 m³ and 2 m, respectively. The detonations were shown to be self-sustained by continuous measurement of detonation velocity using X-band microwave interferometry. Measured detonation velocities were in all cases close to calculated C-J values.In a few experiments close to the limits of detonability, velocity and blast pressure/time records indicated that the propagating wave system is sometimes irregular. The irregularity that occurs just after initiation is characterised by a reaction front velocity very much lower than the constant detonation velocity, but subsequently attaining the latter by an acceleration process. These observations indicate the existence of a dissociated phase in which shock and reaction fronts may no longer be coupled.Because similar experimental conditions were used throughout, it was possible to establish the relative susceptibilities of the various fuel gases to detonation. Comparison is made with the Zeldovich criterion and a detonation kernel theory of Lee.     

Features of wave excitation of the electrostatic ion cyclotron type in the auroral ionosphere

Broadband electrostatic noise in the auroral ionosphere can be identified as a version of waves of an electrostatic ion cyclotron type, excited by plasma instability resulting from an inhomogeneous distribution of wave energy density. Broadband waves are generated due to both electric field inhomogeneities and plasma density inhomogeneities. The effect of the form of the distribution of electric field and plasma density inhomogeneities on the excitation of instabilities is studied. Also there is shown the role of the characteristic scale of inhomogeneities in the generation of electrostatic ion cyclotron waves due to the development of instability of this kind. The study of these issues, which are important for understanding the processes in the auroral region, is the subject of this paper. The work presents also a comparison of numerical results obtained using both satellite data and model approximations.     

Photochemical initiation of gaseous detonations

Direct initiation of detonations in gaseous mixtures of C₂H₂-O₂, H₂-O₂ and H₂-Cl₂ in the pressure range of 10–150 torr using flash photolysis was studied. Similar to blast initiation using a concentrated powerful energy source, it was found that for photochemical initiation, there exists a certain threshold of flash intensity and energy for each mixture at any given initial pressure and composition below which a deflagration is formed. At the critical threshold, however, a fully developed detonation is rapidly formed in the immediate vicinity of the window of incident UV radiation. However, at super critical flash energies, the amplitude of the detonation formed decreases and combustion of the entire irradiated volume approaches a constant volume explosion. It was found that photo-chemical initiation requires both a certain minimum peak value of the free radical concentration generated by the photo-dissociation as well as an appropriate gradient of this free radical distribution. The minimum peak radical concentration permits rapid reaction rates for the generation of strong pressure waves, while the gradient is necessary for the amplification of the shock waves to a detonation. If the gradient is absent and the free radicals are uniformly distributed in the mixture, then the entire volume simply explodes as in a constant volume process. The present study reveals that the mechanism of photochemical initiation is one of proper temporal synchronization of the chemical energy release to the shock wave as it propagates through the mixture. In analogy to the LASER, the term SWACER is introduced to represent this mechanism of Shock Wave Amplication by Coherent Energy Release. There are strong indications that this SWACER mechanism is universal and plays the main role in the formation of detonations whenever a powerful concentrated external source is not used to generate a strong shock wave in the explosive.     

气相氛围中悬浮粉末燃料爆震燃烧研究进展

针对在氧化性气相氛围以及在燃料/氧化剂混合气相氛围中粉末燃料爆震燃烧波的传播特性，总结了气相氛围中悬浮粉末燃料爆震燃烧的实验和数值模拟研究进展，归纳了影响爆震波速度、稳定性、传播模式、细观结构和胞格尺寸的主要因素。同时，还介绍了粉末燃料应用于爆震发动机或燃烧室的案例；结合粉末爆震自身特点对实验装置和燃烧诊断测试手段和数值模拟方法进行总结分析；最后针对下一步需要开展的研究工作进行展望 。     

超声速燃烧不稳定性研究进展

对超声速燃烧不稳定性这一新兴领域的研究进行了综合评述，并对未来研究进行了展望。首先分析了超声速燃烧不稳定性现象的基本特性及其影响因素；随后讨论了超声速燃烧不稳定性的多种机理；接着概括了基于上述机理的超声速燃烧不稳定性建模；最后对超声速燃烧不稳定性还需重点研究的方向给出建议。综述表明，超声速燃烧不稳定性的现象、机理和建模都还需持续开展研究，特别需要关注的是燃烧室构型布局和燃料喷注方式对超燃冲压发动机燃烧不稳定性现象的影响，在超声速混合层和射流等典型流动中更深入探索超声速燃烧不稳定性机理，基于超声速燃烧系统的湍流时空演化特性进一步发展超声速燃烧不稳定性模型。     

空气加热器声学振荡特性的数值计算

为研究空气加热器的声学振荡特性并为其设计和后续的试验方案提供借鉴,对空气加热器不同喷嘴位置处的喷雾火焰形成的声学振荡进行了数值仿真,重点研究了多个离散点处的不稳定特征以及燃烧室内的流场演化过程。仿真结果捕捉到了燃烧不稳定的典型特征,如起振、线性增长、稳定极限环;非稳态流场直观地展示出喷注面板中心位置处的喷嘴形成的喷雾火焰容易形成二阶横向声学振荡,并且这种振荡形式具有从喷注面板向喷管入口传播的行波特征;离面板中心53.6mm的喷嘴形成的喷雾火焰容易形成一阶横向声学振荡,这种振荡形式没有明显的行波特征。     

Fluid mechanics of pulse detonation thrusters

The advantages of constant volume combustion cycle as compared to constant pressure combustion in terms of thermodynamic efficiency have focused the researches of advanced propulsion on detonation engines. The paper gives coverage of efforts undertaken during past decades in adjusting detonations for propulsion applications, and highlights new challenges in studying fluid flow dynamics relevant to onset of detonation.     

Nonlinear analysis of hydrodynamic instability in laminar flames—II. Numerical experiments

We consider a nonstationary nonlinear integrodifferential equation describing the evolution of a disturbed plane flame front. The following two-dimensional problems are solved numerically: (i) The formation of a wrinkled noncellular laminar flame front under conditions of spontaneous hydrodynamic instability. (ii) The formation of a turbulent cellular flame front under conditions of spontaneous diffusional-thermal instability. (iii) The formation of a turbulent wrinkled-cellular flame front under conditions of spontaneous hydrodynamic and diffusional-thermal instability. We compute the flame front velocity in laminar and turbulent propagation.     

不同密度比球体入水空泡流体动力特性研究

基于实验与数值计算相结合的方法,针对不同密度比的疏水性球体开展了垂直入水空泡形态及水下流体动力特性研究。建立了基于高速摄像法的小型航行体入水实验系统,并进行了入水空泡高速录像观察。基于VOF方法和动网格技术建立了考虑表面润湿性的回转体入水数值模拟方法。通过与实验结果对比,验证了数值方法的准确性和有效性。基于对实验与数值结果的分析,总结了疏水性球体的入水空泡及水冠发展随密度比与入水冲击速度的变化规律,对比了不同密度比球体在水下空泡夹断前后的流体动力系数。结果表明:随着入水冲击速度的增加,球体动能加大,入水空泡和水冠尺度增大,并从准静态闭合空泡逐渐发展为深闭合及面闭合空泡,临界速度随着密度比的增加而减小。此外,空泡夹断后会形成上下两股高速射流,射流的进一步运动加速了水面及球体附近空泡的溃灭。在流体动力特性方面,球体带空泡航行阶段的时均流体动力系数随密度比的增加而减小,而随入水冲击速度的变化较小,同时空泡夹断会造成流体动力较大波动。     

High speed gas flows in explosions of cavitated explosives

A possibility of attaining steady flow of detonation products with specific energy much larger than the specific chemical energy of explosive is demonstrated in the case when a cylindrical charge of explosive is fitted with an evacuated cavity. Simple estimates and results of numerical analysis of the process are presented. Steady process may be considered to occur under the following assumptions: (1) effects arising due to jet interaction with cavity walls are negligible; (2) the detonation process is steady. In the case of limited explosive lengths these assumptions have been shown to be correct.When the cavity is filled with gas or liquid, a variety of steady and non-steady flow regimes is possible, depending on the density of the filling medium. One well-known case is that of flow with irregular reflection of shock waves at the cavity axis accompanied with the formation of Mach intersections. Another interesting flow regime is observed to occur in the case of low density filling medium (liquid hydrogen, for example). In this case the filling medium is driven by a “detonation piston” at constant velocity, equal to the velocity of detonation, forming a uniform growing column of hot shock-compressed matter, specific energy of which exceeds by one order of magnitude the specific energy of the explosive. Obviously, the walls of the vessel containing hydrogen must be able to withstand radial loads for a sufficiently long time (20 μ sec).The relative merits of these methods in comparison to others in high speed gas-dynamics is discussed.     

A study of detonation in methane/air clouds

In the present paper, we study the problem of detonation in unconfined, gaseous mixtures of methane/oxygen/nitrogen. A numerical simulation approach is employed in which we use a one-dimensional (spherical symmetry), time-dependent computer model to simulate the coupled compressible fluid dynamics-chemical kinetics processes which occur upon direct initiation of detonation. We establish the magnitude of explosive yield of tetryl required to initiate detonation in mixtures of CH₄ + 2O₂ with varying degrees of nitrogen dilution, up to and including stoichiometric . The numerical simulations illustrate the features of direct initiation observed in many experimental investigations, e.g. shock-wave breakaway followed by detonation reestablishment via a quasi-steady, oscillatory flow regime which occurs before the establishment of a steadily propagating spherical detonation. Our results compare well with recent experimental data obtained by Bull et al. (1976) over the range of tetryl masses studied by them. We find that tetryl explosive masses in excess of 10⁷ grams would be required to initiate detonation in an unconfined, stoichiometric mixture.     

Seepage flows instability in porous media

The goal of the present study is to investigate analytically, numerically and experimentally the instability of the displacement of viscous fluid by a less viscous one in two- and three-dimensional channels, and to determine characteristic size of entrapment zones. Experiments on miscible displacement of fluids in Hele–Shaw cells were conducted under microgravity conditions. Extensive direct numerical simulations allowed investigating the sensitivity of the displacement process to variation of values of the main governing parameters. The influence of three-dimensional effects (aspect ratio) on displacement instability was studied. One-dimensional model to simulate mixing flux due to frontal displacement instability was developed for engineering applications.     

Nonlinear analysis of hydrodynamic instability in laminar flames—I. Derivation of basic equations

An asymptotic nonlinear integrodifferential equation is derived for spontaneous instability of the plane front of a laminar flame.If the combustible mixture is deficient in the light component, spontaneous instability will lead to self-turbulization of the flame, and the flame front assumes a strongly nonstationary cellular structure.If there is an excess of the light component, spontaneous instability produces stationary, irregular wrinkles on the flame front, and the flame continues to propagate in a laminar regime.It is shown that in all cases spontaneous instability of the flame implies an increase in its propagation velocity.     

边界层内水介质在压差驱动下沿小孔向气腔射流问题研究

对边界层内小孔气水多相流场下射流问题开展数值仿真及定常水洞试验研究,建立了适用于边界层内压差驱动下小孔向气腔射流多相流场问题研究的数值仿真计算模型,针对典型孔参数及气水流场条件,对比分析了仿真试验数据,验证了数值仿真模型的正确性及模型计算精度。结合流体质点受力及运动模型及平板边界层理论,分析了气水域压力场特征及水域流动规律对小孔射流过程的作用机理及影响规律,开展了孔参数对射流多相流场特征及射流量的影响研究。获得了小孔射流量估算方法,为航行体上防水装置设计提供数据支撑。     

Detonation engine fed by acetylene–oxygen mixture

The advantages of a constant volume combustion cycle as compared to constant pressure combustion in terms of thermodynamic efficiency has focused the search for advanced propulsion on detonation engines. Detonation of acetylene mixed with oxygen in various proportions is studied using mathematical modeling. Simplified kinetics of acetylene burning includes 11 reactions with 9 components. Deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) is obtained in a cylindrical tube with a section of obstacles modeling a Shchelkin spiral; the DDT takes place in this section for a wide range of initial mixture compositions. A modified ka-omega turbulence model is used to simulate flame acceleration in the Shchelkin spiral section of the system. The results of numerical simulations were compared with experiments, which had been performed in the same size detonation chamber and turbulent spiral ring section, and with theoretical data on the Chapman–Jouguet detonation parameters.     

Space-time structure of ion-cyclotron waves in the topside ionosphere as observed onboard the <Emphasis Type="Italic">ST</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">5</Emphasis> satellites

Results of observations of ion-cyclotron (IC) waves onboard the ST-5 satellites in the topside ionosphere (heights from a few hundred up to thousands of km) are presented. In this project, three identical micro-satellites were located during three months in 2006 in almost identical orbits with distances between them from first thousands to hundreds of km. All ion-cyclotron wave packets detected by two-three probes were observed at crossing one and the same latitude, which manifests their narrow localization in latitude with a characteristic scale from the first tens to 100 km. In no event IC waves were recorded with comparable amplitudes by all three satellites. At the same time, in the case of ST-5 flight near the ground-based induction magnetometer, a long emission in the same frequency range on the ground corresponded to a burst of IC waves in the topside ionosphere. This can indicate to the fact that an IC instability develops not continuously, but in the pulsing regime with a characteristic time of up to ∼10 min. A change in the rotation direction when a satellite crosses the wave structure is a characteristic feature of the polarization structure of registered transverse waves. The detected effects are discussed from the point of view of the existing models of generation and waveguide propagation of IC waves.