Space technology in developing nations: an assessment

Space technology can make an immense contribution to solving the problems of the world as a whole, and the developing nations in particular. This report summarizes the use of satellites by developing countries in the fields of communications, remote sensing, disaster management and space science. India and China, in particular, have built up impressive capabilities in several of these areas, but the great majority of developing countries still do not have access to this technology. The author addresses a number of proposals to the international community for bringing the satellite revolution to the developing world.     

印度第二代遥感卫星

IRS-1C/1D是印度空间研究组织研制的印度第二代遥感卫星,与第一代遥感卫星比较,不仅分辨率有所提高,而且还增加了遥感成像仪种类和扩大了光谱段。IRS-1C/1D卫星质量约为1250kg,它们携带的全色成像仪、多光谱成像仪和宽视场成像仪的分辨率分别可达到6m、23.6m和188m。文中对这种卫星的平台和有效载荷结构作了简要介绍。     

Space capsule recovery—Evaluation of risk factors, safety plans and procedures and design of experiments for systems qualification

The Indian Space capsule (SRE-1) launched aboard PSLV-C7 rocket, was recovered successfully in the Bay of Bengal on January 22, 2007 after its orbital sojourn of 12 days. Apart from serving as a platform for micro-gravity experiments, SRE-1 demonstrated ISRO's capability in the field of orbital reentry and recovery technologies. Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC SHAR), the Spaceport of India was given the prime responsibility of assessment of mission risk, formulation and execution of safety plans and procedures, design and conduct of trials for validating the mission-critical sub-systems as well as the physical recovery of the capsule. To achieve these objectives, a number of drop tests were designed and conducted by SDSC SHAR involving real time computer network, ground-based tracking and telemetry stations, communication systems, safety and material handling systems, target identification and recovery systems. Dissemination of relevant information and coordination with multiple external organizations such as Indian Coast Guard, Indian Air Force and Indian Navy is an important aspect of these experiments. This paper delineates the methodologies designed and implemented at SDSC SHAR for validating those critical systems whose functionality finally culminated in the success of the mission, enabling India to join the elite group of nations with reentry module recovery capability.     

Promoting research and education in basic space science: the approach of the UN/ESA workshops

UN-affiliated regional centres for space science and technology education are being established or are in operation in Africa (Morocco, Nigeria), Asia and the Pacific (India), Latin America and the Caribbean (Brazil, Mexico), and Western Asia (Jordan). Education curricula at the university level, embracing remote sensing, satellite communications, satellite meteorology, and space science have been developed for these centres. This article briefly reports on the structure of the most recent updated education curricula in the four disciplines that have been made available for implementation in 2002 and 2003, in the six official languages of the United Nations. This is also an effort to bridge the gap between such education curricula as they vary significantly between nations and among educational institutions in nations.     

Space technology for humanity: A profile for the coming 50 years

Applications of space technology have provided remarkable benefits for humanity since the dawn of the Space Age and India presents an excellent example of the way space is able to benefit developing countries in areas as divergent as communications, education, disaster management, health-care, environmental monitoring, agriculture, water management and mapping. Nevertheless access to these benefits remains inequitable, with a large number of mainly developing countries and poorer sections of society not yet able to share in them. In addition, the world faces serious global challenges in the coming 50 years. The author discusses these challenges and the way they can be met using space technology, as well as ways of making space more inclusive. Key will be creating multilateral systems of systems. Some reform of laws and policies will also be needed.     

Learning via satellite

This report describes a global applied research project — Project Learn — being sponsored by the International Space University in Strasbourg, which aims to address key educational needs, particularly in remote and rural areas, via satellite. The project aims to bypass conventional approaches to education, health care and communications development by using global information technologies at a local level and drawing a range of international organizations into a cooperative effort. Examples of the kind of work to be undertaken by the project are presented.     

Developing remote sensing and GIS hands-on modules to support UN-affiliated education programmes

Implementing remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) education programmes by the UN-affiliated regional centres for space science and technology in developing nations poses challenges because of the imbalance between industrialized and developing nations in the number of experts able to cover the topics defined by the core curriculum. This scenario creates a window of opportunity for developing instructional materials using information technologies to support local experts in teaching these topics. The goal behind teaching remote sensing and GIS should focus on providing scholars with the skills and capacity to allow them to engage in active work after they complete the UN programme. One of the most effective ways of learning process associated with technical skills is through the problem-solving exercises of Problem-Based Learning. A multi-layered decision-making module that provides feedback and allows multiple final solutions is proposed. Module development and implementation includes an initial stage focusing on assessing UN-affiliated regional centres RS/GIS application interest areas and cultural framework and a second phase dedicated to converting the various materials developed in English to the other five UN official languages.     

Micro- and mini-satellites of ISRO—technology and applications

With rich experience of the successful Indian remote sensing satellite series, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has started theme-based satellites like Resourcesat and Oceansat. Further taking the advantage of the improved technologies in areas of miniaturization, the micro- and mini-satellite series have been started, which will provide opportunity for the payloads of stand-alone missions, for applications, study or research. These include payloads for Earth imaging, atmospheric monitoring, ocean monitoring, scientific applications, and stellar observation. The micro-satellites are of 100 kg class, planned with a payload of about 30 kg and 20 W power and mini-satellites of 450 kg class for payloads of 200 kg and power of 200 W. The first satellite in the micro-satellite series is an Earth imaging payload followed by the second satellite with scientific payloads with the participation of students. Further the scientific proposals for micro-satellites are under evaluation. Similarly the first two missions of mini-satellites are defined with first one carrying ocean and environment monitoring payloads followed by the Earth imaging satellite with multi-spectral camera with 700 km swath. The current paper touches upon the technology involved in realization of the micro- and mini-satellites and the scope of applications of the series.     

Research progress and accomplishments on International Space Station

The first research payloads reached the International Space Station (ISS) more than two years ago, with research operating continuously since March 2001. Seven research racks are currently on-orbit, with three more arriving soon to expand science capabilities. Through the first five expeditions, 60 unique NASA-managed investigations from 11 nations have been supported, many continuing into later missions. More than 90,000 experiment hours have been completed, and more than 1,000 hours of crew time have been dedicated to research, numbers that grow daily. The multidisciplinary program includes research in life sciences, physical sciences, biotechnology, Earth sciences, technology demonstrations as well as commercial endeavors and educational activities. The Payload Operations and Integration Center monitors the onboard activities around the clock, working with numerous Principal Investigators and Payload Developers at their remote sites. Future years will see expansion of the station with research modules provided by the European Space Agency and Japan, which will be outfitted with additional research racks.     

European space research in support of international partnership

The envisaged future space research programmes, whether in the field of space exploration or Earth observation are becoming more and more technically complicated and so costly that a single nation can hardly afford to realize them. Major non-European space-faring nations, China and India will progressively play an important role besides US, Russia and Japan. The Space Advisory Group of the European Commission recommended that the European Commission supports within Horizon 2020 a comprehensive Robotic Mars-Exploration Programme under European leadership that should become an essential element of a coordinated international space research programme. The International Space Station (ISS) experience shows that cooperative space programmes build links between industries and laboratories from around the world, which then further develop in non-space related activities, with positive impact on the economy and scientific research. Strategies need to be developed to mitigate the gradual increasing risks incurred by climate change. In order to lower their entry barrier to engage in space emerging and developing space nations need to be included in cooperative space programmes. We present the recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission concerning Europe's participation to global space endeavours.     

Aiding astronomy in developing nations: Japanese ODA

In order to promote education and research in developing nations, the Government of Japan has been providing developing nations with high-grade equipment under the framework of the Official Development Assistance (ODA) cooperation programme since 1982. Under this successful cooperation programme, 24 astronomical instruments have been donated to 19 developing nations up to the end of the Japanese fiscal year 2003. The instruments donated included university-level reflecting telescopes, as well as modern planetaria used for educational purposes, together with various accessories. This paper reports on a continuation of the previous ODA donations and the subsequent follow-up programmes provided with the assistance of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the cooperation with the Programme on Space Applications of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA). It also describes how aid applications should be pursued.     

廊坊市农业内生性发展机制培育研究

农业的发展，离不开各种农业资源效能的发挥。在“四化同步”的大背景下，培育农业内生性发展机制尤为迫切。廊坊市应注重培育农民专业合作社的健康发展，有序推进土地承包经营权流转，大力发展农村教育，以形成一个资源效能可以得到发挥的、具有可持续性的内生性发展机制。     

An International Environmental Agreement for space debris mitigation among asymmetric nations

We investigate how ideas from the International Environmental Agreement (IEA) literature can be applied to the problem of space debris mitigation. Space debris pollution is similar to other international environmental problems in that there is a potential for a “tragedy of the commons” effect: individual nations bear all the cost of their mitigation measures but share only a fraction of the benefit. As a consequence, nations have a tendency to underinvest in mitigation. Coalitions of nations, brought together by IEAs, have the potential to lessen the tragedy of the commons effect by pooling the costs and benefits of mitigation. This work brings together two recent modeling advances: (i) a game theoretic model for studying the potential gains from IEA cooperation between nations with asymmetric costs and benefits, (ii) an orbital debris model that gives the societal cost that specific actions, such as failing to deorbit an inactive spacecraft, have on the environment. We combine these two models with empirical launch-share data for a “proof of concept” of an IEA for a single mitigation measure—deorbiting spacecraft at the end of operational lifetime. Simulations of empirically derived and theoretical launch distributions among nations suggest the possibility that voluntary coalitions can provide significant deorbiting gains relative to nations acting in the absence of an IEA agreement.     

Outer space exploitability: International law and developing nations

This article outlines the principles upon which international space law is based. Space law has been successful so far in benefiting the developing countries without hampering the spacefaring nations. The principal treaty provisions that are of special interest to developing nations are discussed, and issues associated with remote sensing, communications and environmental harms are examined in detail. Since 1967 there has been a sharp change in the focus of legal concern towards ‘taking into account the particular needs of developing countries’, a principle that will be central to arrangements for the equitable sharing of the benefits of exploiting the space environment and its natural resources.     

NASA spinoffs to bioengineering and medicine

Through the active transfer of technology, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Technology Utilization (TU) Program assists private companies, associations, and government agencies to make effective use of NASA's technological resources to improve U.S. economic competitiveness and to provide societal benefit. Aerospace technology from areas such as digital image processing, space medicine and biology, microelectronics, optics and electrooptics, and ultrasonic imaging have found many secondary applications in medicine. Examples of technology spinoffs are briefly discussed to illustrate the benefits realized through adaptation of aerospace technology to solve health care problems. Successful implementation of new technologies increasingly requires the collaboration of industry, universities, and government, and the TU Program serves as the liaison to establish such collaborations with NASA. NASA technology is an important resource to support the development of new medical products and techniques that will further advance the quality of health care available in the U.S. and worldwide.     

Living in space: scientific, medical and cultural implications. A selection of papers presented at the 14th IAA Humans in Space Symposium

The Humans In Space 2003 symposium, entitled "Living in Space: Scientific, Medical and Cultural Implications," was sponsored by the Canadian Space Agency and held in Banff, Alberta, from May 18-22, 2003. There were 150 papers presented in six theme areas: education, missions, physiology, psychology, radiation, and technology. The 32 papers in this volume are organized into Education/Outreach, Medical Care (Bedrest), Medical Care (Countermeasures), Medical Care, Missions (Mars), Missions (Neurolab), Missions (Historical Lessons), Physiology, Psychology, Radiation, Technology (Human Factors), and Technology.     

Enhancement of primary education using EDUSAT: Rajiv Gandhi project for EDUSAT supported elementary education network (RGPEEE) overview

Providing education access to the children in the age group 6–14 years is a constitutional obligation and challenge for the union as well state governments, as the development of elementary education is a key factor for a nation's development. Due to the non-availability of required number of trained and expert teachers’ knowledge-divide exists between students population of urban and rural/remote areas. To bridge this gap Distance Learning or Tele-education is the best option. A dedicated satellite for the purpose (EDUSAT) was launched on 20th September 2004 to serve the nation in all the education activities. It was decided to provide a Tele-education network in and around the Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, with uplink and studio facility (Hub) at Jabalpur (MP) and around 700 receive only terminals (ROTs) in various schools. Since the medium of teaching used in this network is Hindi, it was later decided to extend the coverage to connect around 50 primary schools with ROTs in six surrounding states viz. Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttaranchal. The network is configured as a DTH network using state-of-art digital technology, in Ku-band with 3.8 m antenna and 16 W power amplifier at Hub. The ROTs are designed to operate on solar power for 2.5 h continuously, taking into consideration the non-availability of primary power in the rural areas. The teachers of the schools are trained for the proper operations of the ROTs. The teachers of these rural schools also contribute to the content generation, with local relevance, in coordination with Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). At present the network with around 1000 ROTs is being utilized for 2 h per day. The RGPEEE network is in the process of being augmented with 32 satellite interactive terminals (SITs), to be used for teachers training. The project is being managed by two tier management system. In order to oversee the project implementation and monitoring an Apex Core Group, consisting of Apex Committee and Standing Committee, has been constituted. The Apex Committee takes care of policy decisions where as, the Standing Committee takes care of day to day affair.     

Quality management for space systems in ISRO

In a little over four decades, the Indian Space Program has carved a niche for itself with the unique application driven program oriented towards National development. The end-to-end capability approach of the space projects in the country call for innovative practices and procedures in assuring the quality and reliability of space systems. The System Reliability (SR) efforts initiated at the start of the projects continue during the entire life cycle of the project encompassing design, development, realisation, assembly, testing and integration and during launch. Even after the launch, SR groups participate in the on-orbit evaluation of transponders in communication satellites and camera systems in remote sensing satellites. SR groups play a major role in identification, evaluation and inculcating quality practices in work centres involved in the fabrication of mechanical, electronics and propulsion systems required for Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO's) launch vehicle and spacecraft projects. Also the reliability analysis activities like prediction, assessment and demonstration as well as de-rating analysis, Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) and worst-case analysis are carried out by SR groups during various stages of project realisation. These activities provide the basis for project management to take appropriate techno-managerial decisions to ensure that the required reliability goals are met. Extensive test facilities catering to the needs of the space program has been set up. A system for consolidating the experience and expertise gained for issue of standards called product assurance specifications to be used in all ISRO centres has also been established.     

International space programmes and policies : N. Jasentuliyana and Ralph Chipman, eds North Holland, Amsterdam and New York, 1984, 552 pp, $65.00

The Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ( 82) identified crucial problems and made recommendations on strategies for developing countries to bridge the gap with advanced nations in the area of space technology. This article addresses some issues which, although implicit in the Report, are not discussed in detail therein. The role of space science and related scientific research is particularly emphasized. Close attention is paid to the role of human factors, such as the motivation to conduct research, the motivation to engage in international cooperation, and the motivation to utilize and exploit space. Possible opportunities for space research for developing countries, as well as relevant issues concerning management of space, are briefly discussed.     

Magna Charta of Outer Space for all nations

This note presents the ten clauses of a Magna Charta of Outer Space for all nations which are supported by the UNISPACE '82 Resolutions, the I.T.U. Convention and the 1967 Outer Space Principles Treaty.