Magnetic Fields, Relativistic Particles, and Shock Waves in Cluster Outskirts

It is only now, with low-frequency radio telescopes, long exposures with high-resolution X-ray satellites and γ-ray telescopes, that we are beginning to learn about the physics in the periphery of galaxy clusters. In the coming years, Sunyaev-Zel’dovich telescopes are going to deliver further great insights into the plasma physics of these special regions in the Universe. The last years have already shown tremendous progress with detections of shocks, estimates of magnetic field strengths and constraints on the particle acceleration efficiency. X-ray observations have revealed shock fronts in cluster outskirts which have allowed inferences about the microphysical structure of shocks fronts in such extreme environments. The best indications for magnetic fields and relativistic particles in cluster outskirts come from observations of so-called radio relics, which are megaparsec-sized regions of radio emission from the edges of galaxy clusters. As these are difficult to detect due to their low surface brightness, only few of these objects are known. But they have provided unprecedented evidence for the acceleration of relativistic particles at shock fronts and the existence of μG strength fields as far out as the virial radius of clusters. In this review we summarise the observational and theoretical state of our knowledge of magnetic fields, relativistic particles and shocks in cluster outskirts.     

X-ray emission from clusters of galaxies

The X-ray emission from the intracluster gas is a rich source of information on the metal abundance, evolution and mass profile of clusters. Methods for determining the mass of gas are reviewed; the total mass is uncertain. The best data so far available concentrate on the cluster core. Cooling flows are found within the cores of a significant fraction of rich and poor clusters, as well as in relatively isolated elliptical galaxies.     

Enrichment of the Hot Intracluster Medium: Numerical Simulations

The distribution of chemical elements in the hot intracluster medium (ICM) retains valuable information about the enrichment and star formation histories of galaxy clusters, and on the feedback and dynamical processes driving the evolution of the cosmic baryons. In the present study we review the progresses made so far in the modelling of the ICM chemical enrichment in a cosmological context, focusing in particular on cosmological hydrodynamical simulations. We will review the key aspects of embedding chemical evolution models into hydrodynamical simulations, with special attention to the crucial assumptions on the initial stellar mass function, stellar lifetimes and metal yields, and to the numerical limitations of the modelling. At a second stage, we will overview the main simulation results obtained in the last decades and compare them to X-ray observations of the ICM enrichment patterns. In particular, we will discuss how state-of-the-art simulations are able to reproduce the observed radial distribution of metals in the ICM, from the core to the outskirts, the chemical diversity depending on cluster thermo-dynamical properties, the evolution of ICM metallicity and its dependency on the system mass from group to cluster scales. Finally, we will discuss the limitations still present in modern cosmological, chemical, hydrodynamical simulations and the perspectives for improving the theoretical modelling of the ICM enrichment in galaxy clusters in the future.     

Composition and Measurement of Charged Atmospheric Clusters

Atmospheric charged clusters are formed in a series of rapid chemical reactions after ionisation, leaving a central ion X⁺ or X^? clustered with n ligands (Y) _n . In solar system tropospheres and stratospheres there are two distinct cluster regimes: the terrestrial planets contain largely hydrated clusters (i.e. Y=H₂O), whereas the gas planets and their moons have organic or nitrogenated cluster species. These classifications are largely based on model predictions, since hardly any measurements are available. The few existing composition measurements are reviewed, including the recent detection of massive charged particles in Titan’s upper atmosphere. Technologies for both remote sensing and in situ measurements of atmospheric charged clusters are discussed. Preliminary measurements in the terrestrial atmosphere are presented indicating that ambient charged cluster species interact with downwelling infra-red radiation at 9.15 μm, even in the presence of cloud. This supports the possibility of future infrared detection of charged clusters.     

The Sunyaev–Zeldovich Effect: Recent Work

Scattering of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation by hot gas in clusters of galaxies produces a unique spectral signature – the Sunyaev–Zeldovich (S–Z) effect – that constitutes an important cosmological probe. The effect has been sensitively measured in more than 40 clusters, mostly with ground-based interferometric arrays operating at low microwave frequencies. These measurements have already yielded important information on cluster masses, and the Hubble constant. The scientific yield will be greatly increased when spectral and high-resolution spatial measurements of the effect in a large sample of nearby clusters will be made with stratospheric telescopes equipped with bolometric arrays. I review the current status of observational and theoretical S–Z work, and describe the main goals and challenges of using the effect as a more precise probe of cluster properties and cosmological parameters.     

EXOSAT observations of NGC 1399 and NGC 1404: Two elliptical galaxies in the center of the Fornax cluster

Imaging X-ray observations of the Fornax cluster of galaxies centered on NGC 1399 and NGC 1404 are presented. NGC 1399 and NGC 1404, which are separated by about 10 arc minutes, are found to have an unusually high ratio of x-ray to optical flux. We consider the possibility that the x-radiation is produced by hot gas in the cores of the galaxies. Weak X-ray emission is also detected from a point almost exactly mid-way between NGC 1399 and NGC 1404. The combined emission from the galaxies is insufficient by over an order of magnitude to account for the the low-energy X-ray emission detected from this region by the HEAO-l satellite. It is suggested that the bulk of the HEAO-1 source is diffuse gas associated with the cluster as a whole, rather than individual galaxies.     

Recent Space Data

This paper summarises the workshop session on recent space data. Most presentations addressed the intense solar storm in October–November 2003. Large perturbations of atmospheric trace gas concentrations, notably NO₂ and HNO₃, were found over extended areas around the magnetic poles in the mesosphere and stratosphere, extending over many weeks in the stratosphere. The impact on total ozone seems to be very limited although some more subtle investigations are still to be done. Several new space instruments with many innovative data products have been introduced. Very good coverage in vertically resolved observations of many chemical species is reached for stratospheric chemistry and dynamics research. Data have already been used to improve stratospheric models. Data continuity is an issue. However, the greatest concern is the lack of any suitable future space instrumentation for tropospheric research (air quality and climate forcing/carbon cycle) as well as UTLS problems (climate/chemistry interaction, stratosphere/troposphere exchange).     

有冷气掺混的涡轮气动设计计算方法

本文介绍的设计计算方法 ,直接计入质量和能量掺混 ,但间接计入动量掺混影响。计算程序可以计及涡轮进口沿径总温、总压不均匀的影响、叶片冷却型式不同的影响以及各计算节点的比热和气体常数不同的影响。叶列损失按给出的损失模型迭代求解。在轴向间隙站对混气采用流线曲率法求解径向平衡方程。本计算程序可以用于多级气冷涡轮设计     

Weak and Strong Lensing Statistics

After a brief introduction to gravitational lensing theory, a rough overview of the types of gravitational lensing statistics that have been performed so far will be given. I shall then concentrate on recent results of galaxy-galaxy lensing, which indicate that galactic halos extend much further than can be probed via rotation of stars and gas.     

Clusters of Galaxies: Setting the Stage

Clusters of galaxies are self-gravitating systems of mass ∼10¹⁴–10¹⁵ h ⁻¹ M_⊙ and size ∼1–3h ⁻¹ Mpc. Their mass budget consists of dark matter (∼80%, on average), hot diffuse intracluster plasma (≲20%) and a small fraction of stars, dust, and cold gas, mostly locked in galaxies. In most clusters, scaling relations between their properties, like mass, galaxy velocity dispersion, X-ray luminosity and temperature, testify that the cluster components are in approximate dynamical equilibrium within the cluster gravitational potential well. However, spatially inhomogeneous thermal and non-thermal emission of the intracluster medium (ICM), observed in some clusters in the X-ray and radio bands, and the kinematic and morphological segregation of galaxies are a signature of non-gravitational processes, ongoing cluster merging and interactions. Both the fraction of clusters with these features, and the correlation between the dynamical and morphological properties of irregular clusters and the surrounding large-scale structure increase with redshift. In the current bottom-up scenario for the formation of cosmic structure, where tiny fluctuations of the otherwise homogeneous primordial density field are amplified by gravity, clusters are the most massive nodes of the filamentary large-scale structure of the cosmic web and form by anisotropic and episodic accretion of mass, in agreement with most of the observational evidence. In this model of the universe dominated by cold dark matter, at the present time most baryons are expected to be in a diffuse component rather than in stars and galaxies; moreover, ∼50% of this diffuse component has temperature ∼0.01–1 keV and permeates the filamentary distribution of the dark matter. The temperature of this Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium (WHIM) increases with the local density and its search in the outer regions of clusters and lower density regions has been the quest of much recent observational effort. Over the last thirty years, an impressive coherent picture of the formation and evolution of cosmic structures has emerged from the intense interplay between observations, theory and numerical experiments. Future efforts will continue to test whether this picture keeps being valid, needs corrections or suffers dramatic failures in its predictive power.     

Atmospheric Ions and Aerosol Formation

This paper discusses atmospheric ions and their role in aerosol formation. Emphasis is placed upon the upper troposphere where very low temperatures tend to facilitate new particle formation by nucleation. New measurements addressed include: Laboratory measurements of cluster ions, aircraft measurements of ambient atmospheric ions, atmospheric measurements of the powerful nucleating gas H₂SO₄ and its gaseous precursor SO₂. The paper also discusses model simulations of aerosol formation and growth. It is concluded that in the upper troposphere new aerosol formation via ions is a frequent process with relatively large rates. However new particle formation by homogeneous nucleation which does not involve ions also seems to be efficient. The bottleneck in the formation of upper troposphere aerosol particles with sizes sufficiently large to be climate relevant is mostly not nucleation but sufficient growth of new and still very small particles. Our recent upper troposphere SO₂ measurements suggest that particle growth by gaseous sulphuric acid condensation can be efficient in certain circumstances. If so, cosmic ray mediated formation of CCN sized particles should at least occasionally be operative in the upper troposphere.     

学科集群对中国经济发展影响分析

近年来,我国经济发展迅速,成为世界经济增长的主要引擎.但是我国经济发展的深层次矛盾依然存在,资源利用率低、产业结构不合理、环境污染等问题已经严重影响到经济的健康发展.因此增强自主创新能力,加快科技创新,依靠科技兴国已经成为解决上述问题的有力途径.学科集群伴随着产业集群的发展壮大应运而生,是科技创新的新力军.文章首先介绍了学科集群的内涵和特征,然后分别从学科集群对区域经济发展、区域新型工业化发展和新型城镇化建设中的作用,探讨了对我国经济发展的影响.     

含缺陷固体装药燃烧异常实验分析

利用高速实时Ｘ射线荧屏分析技术,对固体火箭发动机装药经常出现的主要缺陷导致的异常燃烧现象进行研究,提出了含不同类型缺陷装药结构破坏的条件和模式,描述了推进剂裂纹、气孔和脱粘槽穴内的点火、燃烧和结构变形现象,分析了双基、丁羟、ＮＥＰＥ推进剂裂纹进一步扩展趋势和临界条件,为评估固体发动机含缺陷装药燃烧安全性提供了实验依据和分析方法。     

喷射成形高温合金及其制备技术

简要地总结了喷射成形高温材料近年来的研究状况,包括专用高温材料喷射成形装置、技术及其应用结果.同时比较了喷射成形技术与用常规铸锭冶金工艺和粉末冶金工艺制备高合金化高强度高温合金的异同.通过优化氮气与氩气雾化喷射沉积技术,制备了多种优质高温合金沉积坯,沉积坯整体致密、晶粒细小、组织均匀、无宏观偏析、含气量低、冷热加工性能显著改善、力学性能明显提高.     

等离子体增强含硼燃气二次燃烧实验分析

为研究等离子体助燃条件下含硼燃气在补燃室的二次燃烧特性,建立了排除来流空气掺混效应的扩散燃烧实验模型。利用高速摄影仪拍摄了含硼燃气在补燃室的火焰照片,得到了有无等离子体条件下的燃烧火焰形貌;测量了补燃室不同截面的静压和总压,分析了有无等离子体条件下含硼推进剂在固冲发动机中的燃烧效率。实验结果表明：在含硼燃气二次燃烧过程中加入等离子体炬,等离子体炬后方区域火焰更加明亮,硼燃烧更加充分;断开等离子体炬后,补燃室静压和总压出现压力突降台阶,说明加入等离子体后可以加快化学反应速率,提高含硼燃气在固冲发动机中的燃烧效率,从而提高了补燃室的压强;且放电功率越高,含硼燃气在固冲发动机中燃烧效率的增长率越高。     

多滑翔飞行器时间协同轨迹快速规划

从高超声速飞行器集群"探测-打击-评估"一体化任务需求出发,针对多滑翔飞行器时间协同再入轨迹规划问题进行研究,提出集群再入的协同形式及轨迹规划方案,基于改进序列凸化算法解决了再入总飞行时间的精确控制问题,从而实现滑翔段时间协同。首先,给出了滑翔飞行器集群的协同策略,将求解模型转化为协同时间的确定、协同时间约束下的轨迹规划子问题。将模型中的时间项误差等加入罚函数,提高了协同轨迹求解可行性。引入飞行路径角预设剖面作为软约束,并通过罚函数与信赖域自适应调整,以避免轨迹求解时的振荡问题,提高了序列凸化算法的收敛性。以CAV-H飞行器模型为例验证了算法的有效性,仿真结果表明,所提算法对初值的敏感性低,求解得到的再入总时间可调范围与伪谱法一致,轨迹规划结果的平滑性及计算时间均优于伪谱法。     

Batteries vs. alternatives for storing energy

Electric utilities need quickly-available sources of power for supplying expected and unexpected peak loads. Among useful sources have been the energy stored in water by pumping it to elevated storage reservoirs, in air compressed into underground chambers, and in batteries. A new power source, tBase-load nuclear and coal-fired steam plants generate off-peak energy for recharging the depleted storage facility. The aero-derived gas turbine, challenges the economics of these traditional energy-storage means. These turbines have been designed for aircraft where quick startup, rapid change in output power, and high reliability are essential. With a 1426°C (2600°F) turbine inlet temperature the available efficiencies are 42% in simple-cycle operation and 60% in a combined-cycle power plant. A recent 84-MW natural-gas-burning peak-power plant cost $204 per kW. Pacific Gas and Electric's Helmes River pumped-hydro plant had cost $656 per kW. The combined-cycle gas turbine plants, with their low manpower requirements, are producing power that costs less than power from nuclear power plants. We examine the performance and economics available from these new power sources     

航空发动机系统级仿真研究的回顾与展望

实践证明计算机仿真是降低发动机研发费用,缩短开发周期的一个重要手段。各国都对此进行了大量研究。其仿真正在从单一的、定制的仿真程序向多学科综合的、适应各种需要的综合的仿真环境发展。本文从航空发动机系统级仿真的角度对国内外近年来在相关仿真软件和系统开发方面的工作做了简要概述和总结。并结合当前航空发动机系统级仿真的现状以及计算机仿真理论的发展,探讨了未来航空发动机系统级仿真的发展趋势。      

回流型脉冲爆震燃烧室工作特性分析 “爆震专刊”

为了获得回流型脉冲爆震燃烧室在不同工作频率下的工作特性,通过试验和数值相结合的方法对该爆震室工作频率10~30Hz时的出口燃气总压、总温、流量变化规律以及该爆震室的增压能力进行了测试与计算分析。结果表明：出口燃气总压、总温具有极高的峰值和较高的平台区,其工作频率10~30Hz时,压力平台值为0.36~0.91MPa,时均温度为710~1270K。此外,该爆震室排气流量十分集中,以10Hz为例,在一个爆震循环的16%时间,排出了整个循环60.5%的燃气。为此对出口燃气总压进行质量加权平均,发现该爆震室的增压比随工作频率的增加而降低,在2.37~2.05之间。