Wayfinding Through Orientation

Dominant approaches in computer-assisted wayfinding support adhere to the deeply problematic principles of turn-by-turn navigation. In this article, we suggest a new approach called “Wayfinding Through Orientation,” which supports the acquisition of spatial knowledge and cognitive mapping for advancing the user’s spatial orientation. Being oriented on one’s way is a prerequisite to enabling people to verify instructions and to incorporate new spatial information into their existing knowledge structure. In three studies described in this article we first present empirical evidence that people can be supported in survey knowledge acquisition through suitable wayfinding instructions. Consequently, we explore orientation information in human wayfinding instructions. Finally, we outline how orientation information can be communicated within a prototypically implemented navigation assistance system.     

Learning Routes from Visualizations for Indoor Wayfinding: Presentation Modes and Individual Differences

Abstract

Participants (N = 78) studied a visualization of a route through a complex building and walked that route in the real building without further assistance. Erroneous turns on the route as well as indicators of uncertainty such as hesitations were assessed. Three types of route visualizations were compared: (1) an allocentric, map-based visualization with the route indicated in floor maps, (2) an ordered sequence of pictures of decision points shown from the egocentric perspective, and (3) an animation showing a virtual walk of the route from the egocentric perspective. In addition to the experimental variation, gender differences, differences in visual-spatial abilities and differences in self-reported wayfinding strategies were considered as predictor variables. Wayfinding performance did not differ between allocentric (map) and egocentric (decision point pictures and animation) visualizations. However, wayfinding performance was better with animated than with static egocentric visualizations. Individual differences in the ability to encode visual-spatial information from the visualization played a critical role for route learning. Self-reported sense of direction related to egocentric wayfinding strategies also predicted wayfinding performance. Gender differences were attributable to differences in visual-spatial abilities and egocentric wayfinding strategies. Interactions between visualizations and individual differences were not found. It is concluded that animations of virtual walks are suitable to convey route information in complex buildings. Successful acquisition of route knowledge from maps is possible but might depend on the comprehensibility of the structure of the building.     

The acquisition of survey knowledge for local and global landmark configurations under time pressure

The influence of stress states on cognition is widely recognized. However, the manner in which stress affects survey knowledge acquisition is still unresolved. For the present study, we investigated whether survey knowledge acquisition during a stressful task (i.e., under time pressure) is more accurate for the mental representation of global or local landmarks. Participants navigated through virtual cities with a navigation aid and explicit learning instructions for different landmark configurations. Participants’ judgments of relative direction (JRDs) suggest that global landmark configurations were not represented more accurately than local landmark configurations and that survey knowledge acquisition was not impaired under time pressure. In contrast to prior findings, our results indicate the limitations of the utility of global landmarks for spatial knowledge acquisition.     

Taxonomy of Human Wayfinding Tasks: A Knowledge-Based Approach

Abstract

Although the term “Wayfinding” has been defined by several authors, it subsumes a whole set of tasks that involve different cognitive processes, drawing on different cognitive components. Research on wayfinding has been conducted with different paradigms using a variety of wayfinding tasks. This makes it difficult to compare the results and implications of many studies. A systematic classification is needed in order to determine and investigate the cognitive processes and structural components of how humans solve wayfinding problems. Current classifications of wayfinding distinguish tasks on a rather coarse level or do not take the navigator's knowledge, a key factor in wayfinding, into account. We present an extended taxonomy of wayfinding that distinguishes tasks by external constraints as well as by the level of spatial knowledge that is available to the navigator. The taxonomy will help to decrease ambiguity of wayfinding tasks and it will facilitate understanding of the differentiated demands a navigator faces when solving wayfinding problems.     

Spatial Reorientation: Effects of Verbal and Spatial Shadowing

ABSTRACT

Spatially disoriented adults flexibly conjoin geometric information (macroscopic shape) and nongeometric information (e.g., the color of a wall) to re-establish their bearings. It has been proposed that non-geometric information is incorporated into a geometric frame of reference through the use of spatial language. Support for this assumption comes from dual-task studies in which participants failed to use non-geometric features when they shadowed a verbal message concurrent to the reorientation task. These studies were performed in small rectangular spaces. In contrast, our study was performed in a large square room. Experiment 1 showed that verbal shadowing did not disrupt non-geometric feature use in this environment. In Experiment 2, we found that a spatial shadowing task that required the encoding of frequently changing spatial directions impaired reorientation behavior. Our study shows that nongeometric information can be used for reorientation without recourse to linguistic processes, and suggests that the use of non-geometric features is dependent upon a spatial coding process.     

The Influence of Landmarks and Pre-exposure to a Structural Map During the Process of Spatial Knowledge Acquisition: A Study with Children and Adults in a Virtual Environment

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effects of featural information (landmarks) and geometric information (pre-exposure to a structural map) and their possible interaction during the process of spatial knowledge acquisition of 8- and 11-year-old children and adults in a virtual environment. The study confirmed the well-known result of a developmental achievement in spatial cognition from childhood to adulthood. Although landmarks and the pre-exposure to a structural map did not affect the time to learn a specific route, they influenced the use of behavior in spatial learning and eased the acquisition of spatial knowledge measured by a route reversal and map-drawing tasks. Children and adults are able to integrate featural and geometric information in the spatial knowledge acquisition process in an environmental space, but their integration depends on the spatial processing stages that are investigated. Moreover, it was successfully demonstrated that the use of desktop virtual environments seems to be appropriate to investigate the development of spatial cognition.     

Influence of estimation errors on wayfinding-decisions in unknown street networks – analyzing the least-angle strategy

The least-angle strategy is a common wayfinding method that can be applied in unknown environments if the target direction is known. The strategy is based on the navigator's heuristic to select the street segment at an intersection which is most in line with the target direction. To use this strategy, the navigator needs to know the angles between the target direction and the street segments leading out from the intersection. If the direct view to the target is blocked and the target vector cannot be perceived, the target direction that is needed for the decision process is based on the agent's believed position and orientation (estimated through path integration). The agent's believed position and target direction are distorted by human errors in estimation of distances and directions, mainly affecting the path integration process. In this paper we examine how human estimation errors of distance and rotation influence the decision behavior in the wayfinding process in an unknown street environment. To demonstrate the geometrical consequences for a specific test case, we use a simulated software agent which navigates in a simulated street environment.     

Influence of Map Design,Individual Differences,and Environmental Cues on Wayfinding Performance

This exploratory study investigated the effects of map design, individual differences, and environmental cues on wayfinding performance in an outdoor recreational area. Six maps, with three contour representations and two color codes, were used to determine how map design influences wayfinding. Four individual differences: gender, experience in map usage (experience vs. novice), handedness, and cultural difference (local vs. international), were used to predict wayfinding performance. The study area consisted of a trail park with ten junctions, where three of the junctions had signs, as environmental cues to aid users. Multiple regression analyses and logistic regression analysis were performed to predict the total time of completion, time for decision-making, accuracy of decision-making, and total time deviated from route. Results showed that only cultural difference and signage significantly predicted decisionmaking accuracy, and cultural difference was a significant predictor of total time deviated from route. Design implications for use of cues and wayfinding are discussed. In addition, recommendations for maps, trail networks, and environmental design are provided.     

Is Memory for Routes Enhanced by an Environment's Richness in Visual Landmarks?

We tested the hypothesis that a route's memorability is dependent on the frequency with which people are exposed to visual landmarks. Undergraduates learned either a route through an urban area lacking visually salient features, or a route in a neighborhood with many shops and urban objects. They were then asked to recall the learned route in the form of route directions and sketch maps. The results showed higher recall performance for the richer environment. When presented with photographs depicting scenes along the route, participants exposed to the richer environment had higher recognition scores and shorter response times than the others. The data confirm the functional role of landmarks in route memory and wayfinding.     

CAMS as a tool for human factors research in spaceflight

The paper reviews a number of research studies that were carried out with a PC-based task environment called Cabin Air Management System (CAMS) simulating the operation of a spacecraft's life support system. As CAMS was a multiple task environment, it allowed the measurement of performance at different levels. Four task components of different priority were embedded in the task environment: diagnosis and repair of system faults, maintaining atmospheric parameters in a safe state, acknowledgement of system alarms (reaction time), and keeping a record of critical system resources (prospective memory). Furthermore, the task environment permitted the examination of different task management strategies and changes in crew member state (fatigue, anxiety, mental effort). A major goal of the research programme was to examine how crew members adapted to various forms of sub-optimal working conditions, such as isolation and confinement, sleep deprivation and noise. None of the studies provided evidence for decrements in primary task performance. However, the results showed a number of adaptive responses of crew members to adjust to the different sub-optimal working conditions. There was evidence for adjustments in information sampling strategies (usually reductions in sampling frequency) as a result of unfavourable working conditions. The results also showed selected decrements in secondary task performance. Prospective memory seemed to be somewhat more vulnerable to sub-optimal working conditions than performance on the reaction time task. Finally, suggestions are made for future research with the CAMS environment.     

Interface Familiarity Restores Active Advantage in a Virtual Exploration and Reconstruction Task in Children

Abstract

Active exploration is reportedly better than passive observation of spatial displacements in real environments, for the acquisition of relational spatial information, especially by children. However, a previous study using a virtual environment (VE) showed that children in a passive observation condition performed better than actives when asked to reconstruct in reality the environment explored virtually. Active children were unpractised in using the input device, which may have detracted from any active advantage, since input device operation may be regarded as a concurrent task, increasing cognitive load and spatial working memory demands. To examine this possibility, 7–8-year-old children in the present study were given 5 minutes of training with the joystick input device. When compared with passive participants for spatial learning, active participants gave a better performance than passives, placing objects significantly more accurately. The importance of interface training when using VEs for assessment and training was discussed.     

Selection of Salient Features for Route Directions

People navigating in unfamiliar environments rely on wayfinding directions, either given by people familiar with the place, or given by maps or wayfinding services. The essential role of landmarks in human route communication is well-known. However, mapping the human ability to select landmarks ad hoc for route directions to a computational model was never tried before. Wayfinding services manage the problem by using predefined points of interest. These points are not automatically identified, and they are not related to any route. In contrast, here a computational model is presented that selects salient features along a route where needed, e.g., at decision points. We propose measures to formally specify the salience of a feature. The observed values of these measures are subject to stochastical tests in order to identify the most salient features from datasets. The proposed model is implemented and checked for computability with a use case from the city of Vienna. It is also crosschecked with a human subject survey for landmarks along a given route. The survey provides evidence that the proposed model selects features that are strongly correlated to human concepts of landmarks. Hence, integrating the selected salient features in wayfinding directions will produce directions with lower cognitive workload and higher success rates, compared to directions based only on geometry, or on geometry and static points of interest.     

Egocentric frames of reference used for the retrieval of survey knowledge learned by map and navigation

Two experiments are reported that use a ``point-to-unseen-targets' task to study the role of egocentric reference frames in the retrieval of survey knowledge learned from either studying a map or navigating an environment. In Experiment 1, performance was generally consistent with the hypothesis that map knowledge is retrieved using a frame of reference centered on the eye, characterized by (a) a fixed orientation in a ``frontal representational plane' and (b) equal access to spatial relations both in front of, or above, and behind, or below, a right-left retrieval axis. The results of Experiment 2 were consistent with the hypothesis that environment knowledge is retrieved within a frame of reference centered on the body, characterized by (a) flexible orientation within a ``transverse representational plane' and (b) privileged access to spatial relations located in front of the right-left retrieval axis in representational space. Both types of knowledge function as if they preserve information about the Euclidean angles connecting elements in physical space.     

基于专家系统理念的航天器特殊控温策略推理测试验证

针对热控设计中某些特殊自主控温策略与任务背景、空间环境以及被控对象参数之间耦合度强,不易通过传统地面综合测试方法提前验证其正确性与合理性的难题,结合“嫦娥五号”月球探测任务推进贮箱温度需求及其特殊自主控温策略设计过程,构建出一种基于综合测试与热控设计专家知识的推理评测方法,并利用优化后的测试用例进行了验证。结果表明:第1版控温策略能够实现减小各贮箱之间温差的预期目标,但对具体任务背景适应性不足;在给出控制策略优化完善建议后,控温策略可同时满足温差要求和引入能量最小原则,实现了“初始设计—测试验证—完善改进”的优化闭环研制模式。     

Detour Strategies in Humans: Testing the Predictions of a Cognitive Map Model

In this paper, we test the predictions of a model developed by Voicu and Schmajuk (2002) in a paradigm that consists of placing an obstacle on a path between a start place and a goal after that path has been experienced by human participants several times. The model predicts that more experience with the path increases the likelihood of the participants performing a detour, e.g., circumventing the obstacle and resuming the original path, and decreases the probability of taking a shortcut to the goal. This prediction is tested in humans in a computed-simulated virtual environment. The experimental results agree with the prediction of the model for the case in which subjects have a limited view of the environment. In the case where they have an unrestricted view of the environment, they are more likely to move directly to the goal irrespective of the experience with the path between the two places.     

Virtual to Real Transfer of Spatial Learning in a Complex Environment: The Role of Path Network and Additional Features

The effects of the amount and type of spatial information on the orientation accuracy and metric properties of mental representations of a large-scale built environment were evaluated in a virtual-real transfer study. Four groups of participants explored different virtual versions of a campus before being tested in the real environment. Learning with or without additional features and with or without a network of pathways led to different patterns of data. Although direction measures and straight-line and route distance estimates were least accurate in the absence of either type of information, the combination of both types of information did not produce more accurate knowledge than either did alone. In particular, the presence of additional features had a facilitating effect only on the direction estimates. The results highlight the respective importance of amount and type of spatial information in the acquisition and use of mental spatial representations.