Surface and downhole prospecting tools for planetary exploration: tests of neutron and gamma ray probes

The ability to locate and characterize icy deposits and other hydrogenous materials on the Moon and Mars will help us understand the distribution of water and, therefore, possible habitats at Mars, and may help us locate primitive prebiotic compounds at the Moon's poles. We have developed a rover-borne neutron probe that localizes a near-surface icy deposit and provides information about its burial depth and abundance. We have also developed a borehole neutron probe to determine the stratigraphy of hydrogenous subsurface layers while operating within a drill string segment. In our field tests, we have used a neutron source to "illuminate" surrounding materials and gauge the instruments' efficacy, and we can simulate accurately the observed instrument responses using a Monte Carlo nuclear transport code (MCNPX). An active neutron source would not be needed for lunar or martian near-surface exploration: cosmic-ray interactions provide sufficient neutron flux to depths of several meters and yield better depth and abundance sensitivity than an active source. However, for deep drilling (>or=10 m depth), a source is required. We also present initial tests of a borehole gamma ray lithodensity tool and demonstrate its utility in determining soil or rock densities and composition.     

Cosmic radiation exposure of biological test systems during the EXPOSE-E mission

In the frame of the EXPOSE-E mission on the Columbus external payload facility EuTEF on board the International Space Station, passive thermoluminescence dosimeters were applied to measure the radiation exposure of biological samples. The detectors were located either as stacks next to biological specimens to determine the depth dose distribution or beneath the sample carriers to determine the dose levels for maximum shielding. The maximum mission dose measured in the upper layer of the depth dose part of the experiment amounted to 238±10 mGy, which relates to an average dose rate of 408±16 μGy/d. In these stacks of about 8?mm height, the dose decreased by 5-12% with depth. The maximum dose measured beneath the sample carriers was 215±16 mGy, which amounts to an average dose rate of 368±27 μGy/d. These values are close to those assessed for the interior of the Columbus module and demonstrate the high shielding of the biological experiments within the EXPOSE-E facility. Besides the shielding by the EXPOSE-E hardware itself, additional shielding was experienced by the external structures adjacent to EXPOSE-E, such as EuTEF and Columbus. This led to a dose gradient over the entire exposure area, from 215±16 mGy for the lowest to 121±6 mGy for maximum shielding. Hence, the doses perceived by the biological samples inside EXPOSE-E varied by 70% (from lowest to highest dose). As a consequence of the high shielding, the biological samples were predominantly exposed to galactic cosmic heavy ions, while electrons and a significant fraction of protons of the radiation belts and solar wind did not reach the samples.     

Time profile of cosmic radiation exposure during the EXPOSE-E mission: the R3DE instrument

The aim of this paper is to present the time profile of cosmic radiation exposure obtained by the Radiation Risk Radiometer-Dosimeter during the EXPOSE-E mission in the European Technology Exposure Facility on the International Space Station's Columbus module. Another aim is to make the obtained results available to other EXPOSE-E teams for use in their data analysis. Radiation Risk Radiometer-Dosimeter is a low-mass and small-dimension automatic device that measures solar radiation in four channels and cosmic ionizing radiation as well. The main results of the present study include the following: (1) three different radiation sources were detected and quantified-galactic cosmic rays (GCR), energetic protons from the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region of the inner radiation belt, and energetic electrons from the outer radiation belt (ORB); (2) the highest daily averaged absorbed dose rate of 426 μGy d(-1) came from SAA protons; (3) GCR delivered a much smaller daily absorbed dose rate of 91.1 μGy d(-1), and the ORB source delivered only 8.6 μGy d(-1). The analysis of the UV and temperature data is a subject of another article (Schuster et al., 2012 ).     

Resistance of bacterial endospores to outer space for planetary protection purposes--experiment PROTECT of the EXPOSE-E mission

Spore-forming bacteria are of particular concern in the context of planetary protection because their tough endospores may withstand certain sterilization procedures as well as the harsh environments of outer space or planetary surfaces. To test their hardiness on a hypothetical mission to Mars, spores of Bacillus subtilis 168 and Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 were exposed for 1.5 years to selected parameters of space in the experiment PROTECT during the EXPOSE-E mission on board the International Space Station. Mounted as dry layers on spacecraft-qualified aluminum coupons, the "trip to Mars" spores experienced space vacuum, cosmic and extraterrestrial solar radiation, and temperature fluctuations, whereas the "stay on Mars" spores were subjected to a simulated martian environment that included atmospheric pressure and composition, and UV and cosmic radiation. The survival of spores from both assays was determined after retrieval. It was clearly shown that solar extraterrestrial UV radiation (λ≥110?nm) as well as the martian UV spectrum (λ≥200?nm) was the most deleterious factor applied; in some samples only a few survivors were recovered from spores exposed in monolayers. Spores in multilayers survived better by several orders of magnitude. All other environmental parameters encountered by the "trip to Mars" or "stay on Mars" spores did little harm to the spores, which showed about 50% survival or more. The data demonstrate the high chance of survival of spores on a Mars mission, if protected against solar irradiation. These results will have implications for planetary protection considerations.     

失谐叶片轮盘的减缩建模及动力响应预测方法

为解决高保真失谐叶盘计算量大的问题,提出了一种新的减缩建模及动力响应预测方法。该方法对叶盘单扇区有限元模型进行圆周对称分析,获取谐调叶盘在局部坐标系下的基本模态特性。同时,运用主节点的概念,仅对少量节点进行模态分析,在大大降低矩阵维度的同时获取准确的失谐模态特性。在动力响应预测分析时,利用失谐固有频率点处响应的基本特性,仅选取危险频段内、危险叶片上的危险节点进行响应分析计算,既极大地提高了运算效率,又能够准确地获取叶盘最大受迫响应幅值。实例分析结果表明:相较于传统的有限元方法,该方法中模态分析的求逆过程矩阵维度从150万下降到384,计算所得的前50阶固有频率的精度保持在0.005%以内,最大响应计算过程运算量下降超过99%时,仅存在-0.35%的误差。     

Implications of subzero metabolic activity on long-term microbial survival in terrestrial and extraterrestrial permafrost

The survival of microorganisms over extended time frames in frozen subsurface environments may be limited by chemical (i.e., via hydrolysis and oxidation) and ionizing radiation-induced damage to chromosomal DNA. In an effort to improve estimates for the survival of bacteria in icy terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments, we determined rates of macromolecular synthesis at temperatures down to -15°C in bacteria isolated from Siberian permafrost (Psychrobacter cryohalolentis K5 and P. arcticus 273-4) and the sensitivity of P. cryohalolentis to ionizing radiation. Based on experiments conducted over ≈400 days at -15°C, the rates of protein and DNA synthesis in P. cryohalolentis were <1 to 16 proteins cell(-1) d(-1) and 83 to 150 base pairs (bp) cell(-1) d(-1), respectively; P. arcticus synthesized DNA at rates of 20 to 1625?bp cell(-1) d(-1) at -15°C under the conditions tested. The dose of ionizing radiation at which 37% of the cells survive (D(37)) of frozen suspensions of P. cryohalolentis was 136?Gy, which was ～2-fold higher (71?Gy) than identical samples exposed as liquid suspensions. Laboratory measurements of [(3)H]thymidine incorporation demonstrate the physiological potential for DNA metabolism at -15°C and suggest a sufficient activity is possible to offset chromosomal damage incurred in near-subsurface terrestrial and martian permafrost. Thus, our data imply that the longevity of microorganisms actively metabolizing within permafrost environments is not constrained by chromosomal DNA damage resulting from ionizing radiation or entropic degradation over geological time.     

Elucidation of an iterative process of carbon-carbon bond formation of prebiotic significance

Laboratory experiments carried out under plausible prebiotic conditions (under conditions that might have occurred at primitive deep-sea hydrothermal vents) in water and involving constituents that occur in the vicinity of submarine hydrothermal vents (e.g., CO, H(2)S, NiS) have disclosed an iterative Ni-catalyzed pathway of C-C bond formation. This pathway leads from CO to various organic molecules that comprise, notably, thiols, alkylmono- and disulfides, carboxylic acids, and related thioesters containing up to four carbon atoms. Furthermore, similar experiments with organic compounds containing various functionalities, such as thiols, carboxylic acids, thioesters, and alcohols, gave clues to the mechanisms of this novel synthetic process in which reduced metal species, in particular Ni(0), appear to be the key catalysts. Moreover, the formation of aldehydes (and ketones) as labile intermediates via a hydroformylation-related process proved to be at the core of the chain elongation process. Since this process can potentially lead to organic compounds with any chain length, it could have played a significant role in the prebiotic formation of lipidic amphiphilic molecules such as fatty acids, potential precursors of membrane constituents.     

8PSK TCM调制在TDRSS信道中的性能

随着NASA局走向21世纪,新的航天计划,例如国际空间站、载人火星飞行计划和新的陆地星计划逐步展开,对TDRSS的数传要求很可能超出现有带宽。按NASA资助合同NAG5—1491,新墨西哥州大学(NMSU)空间遥测和通信系统的小Manual Lujan中心正在研究提高TDRSS数传容量的技术。这些技术包括利用高带宽效率调制格式来提高TDRSS转发器的数传     

一个由可匹配的互易无损五端口和优良的定向耦合器组成的理想六端口网络

由一个可匹配的互易无损五端口串接一个优良的定向耦合器组成的六端口。根据Engen所发展的理论,证明它具有理想六端口的特性。诸q点以120°间距分布在公共圆上。可匹配的五端口本身具有四路分配网络的功能,并与一个可匹配的非互易的无损三端口(环行器)非常类似。这种类似可用于设计几种可匹配对称微带线式的五端口,以便进行六端口测量。