An Introduction to Theory and Models of CMEs, Shocks, and Solar Energetic Particles

We present a brief introduction to the essential physics of coronal mass ejections as well as a review of theory and models of CME initiation, solar energetic particle (SEP) acceleration, and shock propagation. A brief review of the history of CME models demonstrates steady progress toward an understanding of CME initiation, but it is clear that the question of what initiates CMEs has still not been solved. For illustration, we focus on the flux cancellation model and the breakout model. We contrast the similarities and differences between these models, and we examine how their essential features compare with observations. We review the generation of shocks by CMEs. We also outline the theoretical ideas behind the origin of a gradual SEP event at the evolving CME-driven coronal/interplanetary shock and the origin of “impulsive” SEP events at flare sites of magnetic reconnection below CMEs. We argue that future developments in models require focused study of “campaign events” to best utilize the wealth of available CME and SEP observations.     

Wireless sensor networks: scheduling for measurement and data reporting

An optimal load allocation approach is presented for measurement and data reporting in wireless sensor networks with a single level tree network topology. The measurement problem investigated involves a measurement space, part of which can be sampled by each sensor. We seek to optimally assign sensors part of the measurement space to minimize reporting time and energy usage. Three representative measurement and reporting strategies are studied. This work is novel as it considers, for the first time, the measurement capacity of processors and assumes negligible computation time which is radically different from the traditional divisible load scheduling research to date. Aerospace applications include satellite remote sensing and monitoring and sensor networks deployed and monitored from the air.     

Proton fluxes measured by low-orbit satellites

In this paper we consider the fluxes of protons in the energy range from 30 keV to 140 MeV recorded by instruments onboard the Russian satellites KORONAS-F and UNIVERSITETSKII and on the American satellites GOES-11 and NOAA-17. In order to estimate the reliability of the obtained data, the comparison of measurements of separate energy channels of these instruments between themselves is performed. Experimental fluxes of trapped protons are compared with the fluxes predicted by the AP8 model.     

Planetary waves according to simultaneous observations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">GPS</Emphasis> satellites and ground-based magnetic stations

On the basis of measurements made at Japanese magnetic stations and using GPS satellites for the 12 months of 2003, a comparison of simultaneous variations of three components of the magnetic field and total electron content (TEC) was carried out in the range of the planetary waves period. The correlation analysis has shown that almost synchronous variations exist within this range of periods at the ground-based magnetometer stations and in the TEC measurements both during strong magnetic disturbances and in quiet periods. The strong magnetic disturbances could be considered as a possible independent source of ionospheric variations within the planetary waves range, while the accompanying ionospheric storms could be a possible factor changing the conductivity of the lower ionosphere plasma. In quiet periods, the correlation of magnetic variations and disturbances in TEC is caused by the direct impact of atmospheric planetary waves on the lower ionosphere and can be related to variations of ionospheric currents due to the dynamo mechanism.     

Turbulent fluctuations of plasma and magnetic field parameters in the magnetosheath and the low-latitude boundary layer formation: Multisatellite observations on March 2, 1996

The results of simultaneous analysis of plasma and magnetic field characteristics measured on the INTERBALL/Tail Probe, WIND and Geotail satellites on March 2, 1996, are presented. During these observations the INTERBALL/Tail Probe crossed the low-latitude boundary layer, and the WIND and Geotail satellites measured the solar wind’s and magnetosheath’s parameters, respectively. The plasma and magnetic field characteristics in these regions have been compared. The data of the Corall, Electron, and MIF instruments on the INTERBALL/Tail Probe satellite are analyzed. Fluctuations of the magnetic field components and plasma velocity in the solar wind and magnetosheath, measured onboard the WIND and Geotail satellites, are compared. The causes resulting in appearance of plasma jet flows in the low-latitude boundary layer are analyzed. The amplitude of magnetic field fluctuations in the magnetosheath for a studied magnetosphere boundary crossing is shown to exceed the magnetic field value below the magnetopause near the cusp. The possibility of local violation of pressure balance on the magnetopause is discussed, as well as penetration of magnetosheath plasma into the magnetosphere, as a result of magnetic field and plasma flux fluctuations in the magnetosheath.     

Biomarker and stable isotope characterization of coastal pond-derived organic matter, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica

Small coastal ponds that contain photosynthetic microbial mat communities represent an extreme environment where a potentially significant source of labile organic carbon can be found within the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. To distinguish coastal pond-derived organic matter from other sources of organic matter in the Dry Valleys, bulk organic carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope signatures and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiles of benthic microbial mats located at two sites--Hjorth Hill coast and Garwood Valley--were investigated. The average isotope values at Hjorth Hill coast and Garwood Valley are, respectively, -10.9 per thousand and -10.2 per thousand for delta(13) C, 3.7 per thousand and -1.3 per thousand for delta(15)N, and 8.1 per thousand and 16.7 per thousand for delta(34)S. Microbial mats from all ponds are dominated by monounsaturated PLFAs (indicative of Gram-negative bacteria) and polyunsaturated PLFAs (indicative of microeukaryotes). Biomarkers specific to aerobic prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and photoautotrophic microeukaryotes, as well as sulfur-reducing bacteria, are present in all samples. Benthic mats at Garwood Valley are thicker and more laminated, have a higher biomass, and have a greater carbon and nitrogen content, which suggests greater productivity than mats at Hjorth Hill coast. Greater productivity is supported, as well, by higher dissolved oxygen contents likely derived from heightened photosynthetic productivity. More productivity at Garwood Valley likely results from a larger influx of terrestrial surface waters together with a concomitant nutrient loading.     

Neutral buoyancy and sleep-deprived serum factors alter expression of cytokines regulating osteogenesis

We examined expression of genes associated with cytokine production, and genes implicated in regulating bone metabolism, in bone stromal and osteoblast cells incubated under standard ground conditions and under conditions of neutral buoyancy, and in the presence/absence of serum from normal or sleep-deprived mice. We observed a clear interaction between these two conditions (exposure to neutral buoyancy and serum stimulation) in promoting enhanced osteoclastogenesis. Both conditions independently altered expression of a number of cytokines implicated in the regulation of bone metabolism. However, using stromal cells from IL-1 and TNFx cytokine(r) KO mice, we concluded that the increased bone loss under microgravity conditions was not primarily cytokine mediated.     

Spaceflight and clinorotation cause cytoskeleton and mitochondria changes and increases in apoptosis in cultured cells.

The cytoskeleton is a complex network of fibers that is sensitive to environmental factors including microgravity and altered gravitational forces. Cellular functions such as transport of cell organelles depend on cytoskeletal integrity; regulation of cytoskeletal activity plays a role in cell maintenance, cell division, and apoptosis. Here we report cytoskeletal and mitochondria alterations in cultured human lymphocyte (Jurkat) cells after exposure to spaceflight and in insect cells of Drosophila melanogaster (Schneider S-1) after exposure to conditions created by clinostat rotation. Jurkat cells were flown on the space shuttle in Biorack cassettes while Schneider S-1 cells were exposed to altered gravity forces as produced by clinostat rotation. The effects of both treatments were similar in the different cell types. Fifty percent of cells displayed effects on the microtubule network in both cell lines. Under these experimental conditions mitochondria clustering and morphological alterations of mitochondrial cristae was observed to various degrees after 4 and 48 hours of culture. Jurkat cells underwent cell divisions during exposure to spaceflight but a large number of apoptotic cells was also observed. Similar results were obtained in Schneider S-1 cells cultured under clinostat rotation. Both cell lines displayed mitochondria abnormalities and mitochondria clustering toward one side of the cells which is interpreted to be the result of microtubule disruption and failure of mitochondria transport along microtubules. The number of mitochondria was increased in cells exposed to altered gravity while cristae morphology was severely affected indicating altered mitochondria function. These results show that spaceflight as well as altered gravity produced by clinostat rotation affects microtubule and mitochondria organization and results in increases in apoptosis. Grant numbers: NAG 10-0224, NAG2-985.     

Brines in seepage channels as eluants for subsurface relict biomolecules on Mars?

Water, vital for life, not only maintains the integrity of structural and metabolic biomolecules, it also transports them in solution or colloidal suspension. Any flow of water through a dormant or fossilized microbial community elutes molecules that are potentially recognizable as biomarkers. We hypothesize that the surface seepage channels emanating from crater walls and cliffs in Mars Orbiter Camera images results from fluvial erosion of the regolith as low-temperature hypersaline brines. We propose that, if such flows passed through extensive subsurface catchments containing buried and fossilized remains of microbial communities from the wet Hesperian period of early Mars (approximately 3.5 Ga ago), they would have eluted and concentrated relict biomolecules and delivered them to the surface. Life-supporting low-temperature hypersaline brines in Antarctic desert habitats provide a terrestrial analog for such a scenario. As in the Antarctic, salts would likely have accumulated in water-filled depressions on Mars by seasonal influx and evaporation. Liquid water in the Antarctic cold desert analogs occurs at -80 degrees C in the interstices of shallow hypersaline soils and at -50 degrees C in salt-saturated ponds. Similarly, hypersaline brines on Mars could have freezing points depressed below -50 degrees C. The presence of hypersaline brines on Mars would have extended the amount of time during which life might have evolved. Phototrophic communities are especially important for the search for life because the distinctive structures and longevity of their pigments make excellent biomarkers. The surface seepage channels are therefore not only of geomorphological significance, but also provide potential repositories for biomolecules that could be accessed by landers.     

Creating a productive international partnership in the Vision for Space Exploration

When US President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004 announced a new US “Vision for Space Exploration”, he called for international participation in “a journey, not a race”, a call received with skepticism and concern elsewhere. But, after a slow start in implementing this directive, during 2006 NASA has increased the forward momentum of action on the program and of discussions on international cooperation in exploring “the Moon, Mars, and beyond”. There are nevertheless a number of significant top-level issues that must be addressed if a cooperative approach to human space exploration is to be pursued. These include the relationship between utilization of the ISS and the lunar exploration plans, integration of potential partners’ current and future capabilities into the exploration plans, and the evolving space-related intentions of other countries.